Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 11 37 2019 10 23 The Comparison Effects of Individual and Group Competition on Acquisition and Retention of a Sport Skill The Comparison Effects of Individual and Group Competition on Acquisition and Retention of a Sport Skill 17 32 1632 10.22089/mbj.2017.4303.1510 FA Morteza Mohseni M.Sc. of Motor Behavior, University of Isfahan Ahmad Reza Movahedi Professor of Motor Behavior, University of Isfahan 0000-0002-2313-4752 Mehdi Rafei Broojeni Assistant Professor of Motor Behavior, University of Isfahan 0000-0001-8139-6139 Journal Article 2017 06 10 It is well documented that competition can affect performance in sports. However, investigators have not studied the effects of types of competition on learning sport skills. The main purpose of the present study was to compare theeffects of individual and group competition on acquisition and retention of volleyball serve. A total of forty male adolescents (age ranged from (16 to 18) were divided into either an individual or group competition groups. The participants were novitiate in volleyball. Based on the task pre-test scores, participants were required to exercise the task either in individual or group competition environments. The AAHPERD volleyball serve test (1984) was used to measure the task performance. The participants of the two experimental groups exercised the task for 10 sessions. Pretest, acquisition tests and retention tests were taken at pre intervention, acquisition, and post intervention times respectively. For analyzing data, independent sample t test and repeated measures analysis of variance were used. The results showed that the performance of the two groups was found to be similar across acquisition phase while a between group significant difference was found at immediate and delay retention phase in terms of the skill performance. The results also showed that the performance of group competition participants was better than the performance of individual competition participants. We suggest that teachers and instructors use the results of the present study to decide on the type of competitive environment for teaching volleyball serve to adolescent male students. It is well documented that competition can affect performance in sports. However, investigators have not studied the effects of types of competition on learning sport skills. The main purpose of the present study was to compare theeffects of individual and group competition on acquisition and retention of volleyball serve. A total of forty male adolescents (age ranged from (16 to 18) were divided into either an individual or group competition groups. The participants were novitiate in volleyball. Based on the task pre-test scores, participants were required to exercise the task either in individual or group competition environments. The AAHPERD volleyball serve test (1984) was used to measure the task performance. The participants of the two experimental groups exercised the task for 10 sessions. Pretest, acquisition tests and retention tests were taken at pre intervention, acquisition, and post intervention times respectively. For analyzing data, independent sample t test and repeated measures analysis of variance were used. The results showed that the performance of the two groups was found to be similar across acquisition phase while a between group significant difference was found at immediate and delay retention phase in terms of the skill performance. The results also showed that the performance of group competition participants was better than the performance of individual competition participants. We suggest that teachers and instructors use the results of the present study to decide on the type of competitive environment for teaching volleyball serve to adolescent male students.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_1632_0771fc6f0f4b1d7d1bb73bbbe14e0e31.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 11 37 2019 10 23 The Validity and Reliability of Ulrich – 3rd (TGMD-3) with Visual Support among Autism Boys The Validity and Reliability of Ulrich – 3rd (TGMD-3) with Visual Support among Autism Boys 33 52 1508 10.22089/mbj.2018.6220.1706 FA Mehran Soleymani Assistant Professor of Clinical Psychology, Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University, Tabriz, Iran Jalal Dehghani Zadeh Assistant Professor of Motor Behavior, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran 0000-0002-9324-3444 Elham Daneshyar Ph.D. Student in Motor Behavior, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran Parisa Parsafar Ph.D. in Motor Behavior, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran Journal Article 2018 08 06 The Test of Gross Motor Development – 3rd Edition (Ulrich, 2016) has been suggested in the autism spectrum with visual support, in this study, standardization in healthy boys and autism has been investigated. The strategy, design, and method of the research were descriptive-normative, cross-sectional and clinical. The samples of research were 160 children with an average age of 7.73 ± 3.09 from 3-10-year-old boys in Urmia that 80 boys with autism spectrum disorder and 80 boys were normal and had no disorder or developmental- delay. The data collection tool was TGMD-3 test with the visual support that evaluated children's fundamental skills in the age range of 3 to 10 years. This test consists of six locomotion and seven ball skills. The reliability of the test by Cronbach's alpha, the interrater reliability, the intrarater reliability, and the retest showed that the TGMD-3 test in healthy boys and TGMD-3 with vision support in children with autism is a lasting tool. The validity of the test was also evaluated by comparing the raw scores of healthy and autism children, confirmatory factor analysis and age correlation with the gross motor function of children. Healthy children had a significant superiority in motor function compared to children with autism, and the motor function of autism children with visual support was significantly improved compared with the test without visual support. Finally, the association between age and locomotion subtest, ball skill and the total raw score of both the autism and healthy children was confirmed and in locomotion subtest in the test with visual support was obtained at a very low level. The Test of Gross Motor Development – 3rd Edition as a valid and reliable test in healthy and autistic children in 3-10age range has the credibility and reliability of evaluation and use. The Test of Gross Motor Development – 3rd Edition (Ulrich, 2016) has been suggested in the autism spectrum with visual support, in this study, standardization in healthy boys and autism has been investigated. The strategy, design, and method of the research were descriptive-normative, cross-sectional and clinical. The samples of research were 160 children with an average age of 7.73 ± 3.09 from 3-10-year-old boys in Urmia that 80 boys with autism spectrum disorder and 80 boys were normal and had no disorder or developmental- delay. The data collection tool was TGMD-3 test with the visual support that evaluated children's fundamental skills in the age range of 3 to 10 years. This test consists of six locomotion and seven ball skills. The reliability of the test by Cronbach's alpha, the interrater reliability, the intrarater reliability, and the retest showed that the TGMD-3 test in healthy boys and TGMD-3 with vision support in children with autism is a lasting tool. The validity of the test was also evaluated by comparing the raw scores of healthy and autism children, confirmatory factor analysis and age correlation with the gross motor function of children. Healthy children had a significant superiority in motor function compared to children with autism, and the motor function of autism children with visual support was significantly improved compared with the test without visual support. Finally, the association between age and locomotion subtest, ball skill and the total raw score of both the autism and healthy children was confirmed and in locomotion subtest in the test with visual support was obtained at a very low level. The Test of Gross Motor Development – 3rd Edition as a valid and reliable test in healthy and autistic children in 3-10age range has the credibility and reliability of evaluation and use.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_1508_ebd6d2f5d60ff9afaeda1a81fc53e2d0.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 11 37 2019 10 23 The Effect of Quiet Eye Training on Learning Skills of Table Tennis The Effect of Quiet Eye Training on Learning Skills of Table Tennis 53 68 1510 10.22089/mbj.2019.6255.1708 FA Fahimeh Taghizadeh Ph.D. Student in Motor Behavior, Urmia University Fatemeh Sadat Hosseini Associate Professor of Motor Behavioral and Sport Management, Urmia University 0000-0002-6640-4644 Mohsen Behnam Assistant Professor of Motor Behavioral and Sport Management, Urmia University Journal Article 2018 08 12 The main purpose of this study was to investigate the efficiency of quiet eye training practices on the learning skills of table tennis. For this purpose, 28 novice players were randomly placed in two Control and Experimental groups. The Control group participants attended 12 sessions of usual table tennis training practices, whereas the Experimental group had one specialized training session on quiet eye technique, along with 12 sessions of usual exercises focused on quiet eye training. The results demonstrated that the visual factors and performance accuracy of the participants attending the Experimental group significantly improved throughout all skills. The average performance accuracy, respectively in serve and return of serve, was calculated at M=7.1, M= 3.2 for Control group and M=10.2, M= 6.3 for Experimental group. Findings of the present study support research literature in this context, acknowledging that quiet eye training practices, compared to typical table tennis practices, accelerate acquisition of skills for the beginners. They further provide basic evidence suggesting that short-term quiet eye practice protocols can leave long-term effects. The main purpose of this study was to investigate the efficiency of quiet eye training practices on the learning skills of table tennis. For this purpose, 28 novice players were randomly placed in two Control and Experimental groups. The Control group participants attended 12 sessions of usual table tennis training practices, whereas the Experimental group had one specialized training session on quiet eye technique, along with 12 sessions of usual exercises focused on quiet eye training. The results demonstrated that the visual factors and performance accuracy of the participants attending the Experimental group significantly improved throughout all skills. The average performance accuracy, respectively in serve and return of serve, was calculated at M=7.1, M= 3.2 for Control group and M=10.2, M= 6.3 for Experimental group. Findings of the present study support research literature in this context, acknowledging that quiet eye training practices, compared to typical table tennis practices, accelerate acquisition of skills for the beginners. They further provide basic evidence suggesting that short-term quiet eye practice protocols can leave long-term effects.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_1510_41a60377ba920919939d83326ebee5a1.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 11 37 2019 10 23 Identifying Self-Organization Maps in the Iranian National Soccer Team from the Perspective of Social Networking Theory: An Analysis of the offensive Performance in the 2018 World Cup Matches Identifying Self-Organization Maps in the Iranian National Soccer Team from the Perspective of Social Networking Theory: An Analysis of the offensive Performance in the 2018 World Cup Matches 69 86 1509 10.22089/mbj.2018.6279.1710 FA Mohsen Mohammadi Ph.D. Student in Motor Behavior, Kharazmi University Ali Sharifnezhad Assistant Professor of Sport Bio Mechanic, Sport Sciences Research Institute Abbas Bahram Professor of Motor Behavior, Kharazmi University 0000-0003-3430-4777 Journal Article 2018 08 18 The purpose of this study was to use a new method based on social networking techniques to identify self-organizing maps in football teams. The research approach was observational. Based on the data extracted from the FIFA site, after each game, network indicators were organized at two levels of micro and macro, and three official matches of the national football team of Iran were analyzed in the 2018 World Cup. Based on Available Data The network indicators were organized at two levels of micro and macro, and three official matches of the Iranian national team were analyzed in the 2018 World Cup. A total of 517 offensive phases were analyzed in three games. For each attacking phase, a series of proximity matrices was created, which analyzed the density, clustering and game center based on the relative position of the player in the field at two levels using the Nod XL software. The results provided explanations for the tactical performance and features of the Iranian national team networks in these games, and low levels of density and clustering coefficients indicated weak tactical solutions in the offensive phase. The result is a comprehensive explanation for the tactical team performance. Iran nationalized in these games. In general, the findings of this study provide operational strategies that can be used to examine the structure of the team network and its indicators in football teams, and to educate the instructors in understanding the characteristics of teamwork, improving decision making during the match, and providing a protocol Appropriate training exercises. The purpose of this study was to use a new method based on social networking techniques to identify self-organizing maps in football teams. The research approach was observational. Based on the data extracted from the FIFA site, after each game, network indicators were organized at two levels of micro and macro, and three official matches of the national football team of Iran were analyzed in the 2018 World Cup. Based on Available Data The network indicators were organized at two levels of micro and macro, and three official matches of the Iranian national team were analyzed in the 2018 World Cup. A total of 517 offensive phases were analyzed in three games. For each attacking phase, a series of proximity matrices was created, which analyzed the density, clustering and game center based on the relative position of the player in the field at two levels using the Nod XL software. The results provided explanations for the tactical performance and features of the Iranian national team networks in these games, and low levels of density and clustering coefficients indicated weak tactical solutions in the offensive phase. The result is a comprehensive explanation for the tactical team performance. Iran nationalized in these games. In general, the findings of this study provide operational strategies that can be used to examine the structure of the team network and its indicators in football teams, and to educate the instructors in understanding the characteristics of teamwork, improving decision making during the match, and providing a protocol Appropriate training exercises.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_1509_1cd3882394520876dc88d1472aa2a93f.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 11 37 2019 10 23 Comparison of Visual Impairments and Motor Problems between Children 3-7 Age Preterm and Term Comparison of Visual Impairments and Motor Problems between Children 3-7 Age Preterm and Term 87 106 1630 10.22089/mbj.2019.6540.1729 FA Ali Abbas Zadeh Ph.D. Student in Motor Behavior, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran Abdollah Ghasemi Assistant Professor of Motor Behavior, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran 0000-0001-7113-6894 Ali Heirani Assistant Professor of Motor Behavior, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran Mahshid Zare Zadeh Assistant Professor of Motor Behavior, Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, Iran Journal Article 2018 10 22 Birth weight is one of the important indicators of neonatal health and is considered best way to measure gestation outcomes. The purpose of this study was to compare visual impairments and motor problems between children 3-7 age with very low, extremely low and term birth weight. The participants of this study were 128 children with very low, extremely low and term birth weight, who were selected as available. The MABC-2 test was used evaluated motor performances and visual functions such as visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, Stereo acuity, Strabismus, nystagmus, Accommodation, convergence and visual perception measuring by a paediatric ophthalmologist. Results multivariate analysis of variance and Bonferroni post hoc test demonstrated that there is a significant difference between motor function in the three groups of children (P=0.001). There was no significant difference between visual function of the three groups (P=0.051). Therefore, results showed that visual and motor disorders in preterm children is higher compared to term children population, so the first step is more clinical knowledge. Birth weight is one of the important indicators of neonatal health and is considered best way to measure gestation outcomes. The purpose of this study was to compare visual impairments and motor problems between children 3-7 age with very low, extremely low and term birth weight. The participants of this study were 128 children with very low, extremely low and term birth weight, who were selected as available. The MABC-2 test was used evaluated motor performances and visual functions such as visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, Stereo acuity, Strabismus, nystagmus, Accommodation, convergence and visual perception measuring by a paediatric ophthalmologist. Results multivariate analysis of variance and Bonferroni post hoc test demonstrated that there is a significant difference between motor function in the three groups of children (P=0.001). There was no significant difference between visual function of the three groups (P=0.051). Therefore, results showed that visual and motor disorders in preterm children is higher compared to term children population, so the first step is more clinical knowledge.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_1630_46031b3d04dc90994ca317a7c55c4289.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 11 37 2019 10 23 Content Analysis and Comparison of Iranian Journals in Motor Behavior and Sport Psychology Domains Content Analysis and Comparison of Iranian Journals in Motor Behavior and Sport Psychology Domains 107 134 1511 10.22089/mbj.2019.6625.1735 FA Malihe Naemi Kia Assistant Professor of Motor Behavior, Sport Sciences Research Institute, Tehran, Iran Amin Gholami Assistant Professor of Motor Behavior, Sport Sciences Research Institute, Tehran, Iran 0000-0003-1915-3974 Masoomeh Helalizadeh Assistant Professor of Exercise Physiology, Sport Sciences Research Institute, Tehran, Iran Saeid Ahar Ph.D. Student in Motor Behavior, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran 0000-0003-4336-3832 Raziyeh Irani Journal Managing Director, Sport Sciences Research Institute, Tehran, Iran Journal Article 2018 11 06 The purpose of this study was to analyze the content of papers in scientific journals of motor behavior and sport psychology in Iran from 2009 to 2017. The present study was an applied research and content analysis method. In this study, a total of 814 papers have been reviewed in six different journals.For this purpose, content analysis was done quantitatively and in terms of subject matter dispersion. After referring to archived published journals and the entry of some raw data in the coding sheet, descriptive statistics were calculated using SPSS software and frequency distribution tables were created. The results showed that the Journal of Motor Behavior with the highest number 28% and the Journal of Sport Management Research and Motor Behavior 5.7% had the lowest number of papers. It was observed Sports Psychology Studies Journal had the shortest review processes3.50±2.227 months). The authors of the papers were mostly men 70.9% in PhD degree 11.8% with assistant professor position 20.5%, and motor behavior field 71.4%. We also found that most of the papers have been published in sport psychology domain and motor learning domain was in the second position. Less attention has been paid in paper publications to the motor and control development domains. Meanwhile, topic of emotion 13.3% was the most respected by researchers to study. In the reviewed papers, most of subjects were non-athlete and in terms of skill level they were beginner and only 7.2% were elite. Most of papers were about "health". The major statistical samples of the papers were human, young and healthy subjects, and only 12.5% of the subjects had disabilities. The results showed that English language references were used more than Persian sources in the papers. The highest self-citations of the journal were in the Journal of Motor Learning and development -Sport (124 self-citations) and the most self-citation of the author was related to the Journal of Motor Behavior (146 self-citations). Most researches were practical and used semi-experimental research method. It was also found that Tehran University (477 cases) has the largest share of papers among participating academic institutions. little attention has been paid to community of the elderly and the disables, as well as the imbalance of studies conducted in various areas of motor behavior, the identification of research priorities based on the need-assessment in various journals and informing researchers can be a step towards the elimination of scientific and research deficiencies. The lack of qualitative research, the lack of interdisciplinary studies, the low share of associate and full professors in paper publication, the low tendency for research work on motor control and development domains and low focus on children and the elderly as a research sample are some important weaknesses and limitations in reviewed papers. The purpose of this study was to analyze the content of papers in scientific journals of motor behavior and sport psychology in Iran from 2009 to 2017. The present study was an applied research and content analysis method. In this study, a total of 814 papers have been reviewed in six different journals.For this purpose, content analysis was done quantitatively and in terms of subject matter dispersion. After referring to archived published journals and the entry of some raw data in the coding sheet, descriptive statistics were calculated using SPSS software and frequency distribution tables were created. The results showed that the Journal of Motor Behavior with the highest number 28% and the Journal of Sport Management Research and Motor Behavior 5.7% had the lowest number of papers. It was observed Sports Psychology Studies Journal had the shortest review processes3.50±2.227 months). The authors of the papers were mostly men 70.9% in PhD degree 11.8% with assistant professor position 20.5%, and motor behavior field 71.4%. We also found that most of the papers have been published in sport psychology domain and motor learning domain was in the second position. Less attention has been paid in paper publications to the motor and control development domains. Meanwhile, topic of emotion 13.3% was the most respected by researchers to study. In the reviewed papers, most of subjects were non-athlete and in terms of skill level they were beginner and only 7.2% were elite. Most of papers were about "health". The major statistical samples of the papers were human, young and healthy subjects, and only 12.5% of the subjects had disabilities. The results showed that English language references were used more than Persian sources in the papers. The highest self-citations of the journal were in the Journal of Motor Learning and development -Sport (124 self-citations) and the most self-citation of the author was related to the Journal of Motor Behavior (146 self-citations). Most researches were practical and used semi-experimental research method. It was also found that Tehran University (477 cases) has the largest share of papers among participating academic institutions. little attention has been paid to community of the elderly and the disables, as well as the imbalance of studies conducted in various areas of motor behavior, the identification of research priorities based on the need-assessment in various journals and informing researchers can be a step towards the elimination of scientific and research deficiencies. The lack of qualitative research, the lack of interdisciplinary studies, the low share of associate and full professors in paper publication, the low tendency for research work on motor control and development domains and low focus on children and the elderly as a research sample are some important weaknesses and limitations in reviewed papers.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_1511_ebb71045453f38676c40deb9864f811d.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 11 37 2019 10 23 Mental Fatigue Impair the Effect of Feedback to Successful Trials in Motor Learning Mental Fatigue Impair the Effect of Feedback to Successful Trials in Motor Learning 135 150 1707 10.22089/mbj.2019.7085.1777 FA Milad Khojasteh Moghani M.Sc. Student of Motor Behavior, Hakim Sabzevari University Rasool Zeidabadi Assistant Professor of Motor Behavior, Hakim Sabzevari University 0000-0001-9132-2475 Mohammad Reza Shahabi Kaseb Assistant Professor of Motor Behavior, Hakim Sabzevari University Iman Bahreini Boroojeni Ph.D. Student of Motor Behavior, Shahid Beheshti University Journal Article 2019 02 08 Mental fatigue is a psychological state created by long periods of cognitive activity. The effect of mental fatigue on learning of motor skills has been less studied. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of mental fatigue on the effectiveness of feedback to successful trials in learning of force production task. For this purpose, 44 non-athlete male students (18-25 years) were divided into four groups based on mental fatigue and type of feedback. Stroop test was used to create mental fatigue. MFI and VAS questionnaires were used to ensure that mental fatigue was created. At the acquisition phase, all participants in 12 block of six trials to produce criterion power. Immediate retention tests and transfer test 1, 10 minutes later and transfer test 2 was performed 24 hours after acquisition phase without feedback. To analyze the data, mixed ANOVA with repeated measures for the acquisition phase, and two-way analysis of variance were used in retention and transfer tests. The findings of this study showed that in the acquisition phase, the effect of blocks was significant and all groups have significantly improved during the acquisition phase. The results of retention and transference tests showed that the main effect of mental fatigue was significant, but the main effect of feedback and interaction of mental fatigue with feedback were not significant (except in the retention test). These findings suggested that mental fatigue may lead to the loss of benefits of feedback to successful trials and decrease of motor learning. Mental fatigue is a psychological state created by long periods of cognitive activity. The effect of mental fatigue on learning of motor skills has been less studied. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of mental fatigue on the effectiveness of feedback to successful trials in learning of force production task. For this purpose, 44 non-athlete male students (18-25 years) were divided into four groups based on mental fatigue and type of feedback. Stroop test was used to create mental fatigue. MFI and VAS questionnaires were used to ensure that mental fatigue was created. At the acquisition phase, all participants in 12 block of six trials to produce criterion power. Immediate retention tests and transfer test 1, 10 minutes later and transfer test 2 was performed 24 hours after acquisition phase without feedback. To analyze the data, mixed ANOVA with repeated measures for the acquisition phase, and two-way analysis of variance were used in retention and transfer tests. The findings of this study showed that in the acquisition phase, the effect of blocks was significant and all groups have significantly improved during the acquisition phase. The results of retention and transference tests showed that the main effect of mental fatigue was significant, but the main effect of feedback and interaction of mental fatigue with feedback were not significant (except in the retention test). These findings suggested that mental fatigue may lead to the loss of benefits of feedback to successful trials and decrease of motor learning.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_1707_02f039058bd48307e6f653a2005c9dd2.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 11 37 2019 10 23 The Effect of Visual Illusion on Motor Learning of Golf Putting and Self-efficacy in Older Adults The Effect of Visual Illusion on Motor Learning of Golf Putting and Self-efficacy in Older Adults 151 166 1733 10.22089/mbj.2019.7149.1783 FA Nasrin Tahan M.Sc. of Motor Behavior, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran Esmaeel Saemi Assistant Professor of Motor Behavior, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran 0000-0003-2265-9482 Rasool Abedanzadeh Assistant Professor of Motor Behavior, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran 0000-0002-3629-8465 Journal Article 2019 02 27 Research on the effect of visual illusion on motor learning and the self-efficacy of children and adults has shown positive results. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of visual illusion on learning of golf putting and self-efficacy in older adults. In this semi-experimental study, 22 older adults with mean age of 62.72 ± 1.77 years were selected through convenience sampling and randomly divided into two groups: large visual illusion (11) and small visual illusion (11). The participants completed a 2-meter distance golf putting task at pre-test stages (10 trials), acquisition (50 trials; 5 blocks of 10 trials), retention (10 trials), and transfer (10 trials; from a new 2.5 meter) they did. Participants' motor learning was recorded as a radial error in golf putting task. The Bandura self-efficacy questionnaire was used to measure self-efficacy. The results of Mixed ANOVA and t-test showed that although there is no difference between the two types of vision illusion in the acquisition and transfer phase, however, in the retention phase, there is a significant difference between tow visual illusion groups, and the large visual illusion group rather than the small visual illusion group (p≤0.05) resulted in improved motor learning. Also, the results of Mixed ANOVA showed an improvement in self-efficacy in both groups, however, no significant difference was found between the self-efficacy of the two groups. According to the findings of the present study, it can be concluded that older adults, like other age groups, show more motor learning in skills such as golf putting task in large visual illusion conditions. The probable cause of this improvement is an increase in enhanced expectancies in large visual illusion condition. Research on the effect of visual illusion on motor learning and the self-efficacy of children and adults has shown positive results. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of visual illusion on learning of golf putting and self-efficacy in older adults. In this semi-experimental study, 22 older adults with mean age of 62.72 ± 1.77 years were selected through convenience sampling and randomly divided into two groups: large visual illusion (11) and small visual illusion (11). The participants completed a 2-meter distance golf putting task at pre-test stages (10 trials), acquisition (50 trials; 5 blocks of 10 trials), retention (10 trials), and transfer (10 trials; from a new 2.5 meter) they did. Participants' motor learning was recorded as a radial error in golf putting task. The Bandura self-efficacy questionnaire was used to measure self-efficacy. The results of Mixed ANOVA and t-test showed that although there is no difference between the two types of vision illusion in the acquisition and transfer phase, however, in the retention phase, there is a significant difference between tow visual illusion groups, and the large visual illusion group rather than the small visual illusion group (p≤0.05) resulted in improved motor learning. Also, the results of Mixed ANOVA showed an improvement in self-efficacy in both groups, however, no significant difference was found between the self-efficacy of the two groups. According to the findings of the present study, it can be concluded that older adults, like other age groups, show more motor learning in skills such as golf putting task in large visual illusion conditions. The probable cause of this improvement is an increase in enhanced expectancies in large visual illusion condition.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_1733_4fa53be91b4933d536748a60458b9797.pdf