Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 17 60 2025 06 22 Comparison of the Effects of Cognitive Rehabilitation and Purposeful-Movement Plays on Cognitive Flexibility and Motor Coordination among Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder Comparison of the Effects of Cognitive Rehabilitation and Purposeful-Movement Plays on Cognitive Flexibility and Motor Coordination among Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder 29 50 2274 10.22089/mbj.2021.8490.1856 FA Rezvan Abbasian Borujeni Department of Motor Behavior, Central Tehran Branch, Azad Islamic University, Tehran, Iran Saleh Rafiee Associate Professor of motor behavior, Sport Sciences Research Institute of Iran 0000-0003-1230-1102 Mahdi Namazi Zadeh Department of Motor Behavior, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran 0000-0002-1503-468x Farshad Tojari Department of Sport Management, Central Tehran Branch, Azad Islamic University, Tehran, Iran Journal Article 2020 02 16 Extended Abstract Background and Purpose <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a prevalent neuro-motor condition affecting school-aged children, marked by significant impairments in motor performance that interfere with academic and everyday functioning. Cognitive functions, particularly cognitive flexibility, are closely intertwined with motor skill acquisition, and deficits in these areas often co-occur in children with DCD. Historically, interventions have focused separately on motor or cognitive domains; however, limited evidence exists comparing the efficacy of cognitive rehabilitation, purposeful-movement play, and their combined application. Purposeful-movement play involves physically engaging tasks with structured goals, potentially promoting both motor coordination and cognitive skills by enhancing motivation and active participation. Cognitive rehabilitation, especially computerized modalities, aims to restore executive functions through repetitive, targeted exercises. This study aimed to compare the effects of cognitive rehabilitation, purposeful-movement play, and a combined intervention on cognitive flexibility and motor coordination in girls with DCD. We hypothesized that integrating cognitive and motor interventions would yield superior therapeutic benefits. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Methods <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This semi-experimental, applied study employed a mixed factorial design with a between-subjects factor (intervention type: cognitive rehabilitation, purposeful-movement play, combined, control) and a within-subjects factor (time: pre-test, post-test). Sixty girls aged 7–10 years diagnosed with DCD were recruited from elementary schools in Boroujen through multi-stage screening with the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (parent version) and the Lincoln–Oseretsky Motor Proficiency Scale. Inclusion criteria were defined by age- and sex-specific cutoffs indicative of suspected DCD. Participants were randomly allocated into four groups of 15. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The cognitive rehabilitation group received training using the “Captain Log” software, which provides progressively challenging tasks targeting executive function domains including attention, memory, visual-motor coordination, and processing speed. The purposeful-movement play group engaged in selected motor games that progressively developed gross and fine motor skills, adapted from prior validated protocols and designed to maintain engagement and enjoyment (see Table 1). The combined group alternated between the two modalities across sessions. Interventions spanned eight weeks (24 sessions, three per week, 45 minutes each). The control group received no intervention. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Primary outcomes were cognitive flexibility—assessed via the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (completed categories and perseverative errors)—and motor coordination, measured by five items from the Lincoln–Oseretsky scale. Data analysis used mixed ANOVA with Tukey post hoc tests for between-group comparisons. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Results <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Baseline comparisons indicated no significant group differences in any outcome. Mixed ANOVA identified significant main effects of time on completed categories (F(1,56) = 239.5, p < 0.001, ηp² = 0.81), perseverative errors (F(1,56) = 280.3, p < 0.001, ηp² = 0.83), and motor coordination (F(1,56) = 693.6, p < 0.001, ηp² = 0.92). Significant main effects of group emerged for perseverative errors (p = 0.019) and motor coordination (p < 0.001), while completed categories showed no group effect (p = 0.098). Time × group interactions were significant for all measures, exhibiting large effect sizes for motor coordination and moderate for cognitive flexibility indices. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Post hoc comparisons revealed that all three intervention groups improved significantly more than controls for completed categories, perseverative errors, and motor coordination. No significant differences surfaced between intervention groups for completed categories, indicating equivalent efficacy. However, the combined intervention significantly outperformed purposeful-movement play in reducing perseverative errors (p < 0.05), matching cognitive rehabilitation’s effect, while purposeful-movement play and cognitive rehabilitation did not differ on this measure. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Regarding motor coordination, both combined and purposeful-movement play groups showed superior improvement compared to cognitive rehabilitation (p < 0.05), with no difference between combined and purposeful-movement play. These findings suggest both cognitive and motor-specific interventions enhance cognitive flexibility and coordination independently, but purposeful-movement play exerts a stronger influence on motor skills, whereas integrating cognitive rehabilitation yields additional cognitive flexibility improvements. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Overall, results support the hypothesis that simultaneous cognitive–motor interventions may effectively address the multifaceted deficits characteristic of DCD. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Conclusion <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The study demonstrates that cognitive rehabilitation, purposeful-movement play, and their combination effectively improve cognitive flexibility and motor coordination in girls with DCD. Purposeful-movement play, as a dynamic and task-oriented approach, delivered greater gains in motor coordination than cognitive rehabilitation alone, while the combined approach yielded enhanced reduction in perseverative errors—a key marker of cognitive flexibility. These outcomes underscore the importance of integrated approaches targeting both cognitive and motor impairments in DCD, consistent with its complex clinical presentation. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The combined intervention is especially promising for therapeutic contexts aiming to concurrently improve executive function and motor skill domains. Practitioners in school, rehabilitation, and clinical settings are encouraged to adopt structured purposeful play alongside cognitive training to maximize functional improvements. Future research should examine the long-term efficacy, ideal sequencing of interventions, and generalizability across genders and broader age ranges. Keywords: <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Neuro-motor Disability, Perseveration, Executive Functions, Motor Development, Play Therapy <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Article Message <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This investigation provides comparative evidence on the relative efficacy of cognitive rehabilitation, purposeful-movement play, and their combination for enhancing cognitive flexibility and motor coordination in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder. While all approaches produced significant benefits, purposeful-movement play favored motor improvements, and the combined protocol offered superior gains in cognitive flexibility. The findings highlight the value of integrative interventions addressing DCD’s multidimensional nature. Such strategies may be effectively implemented in educational, clinical, and rehabilitation settings to promote functional development and daily activity participation. Ethical Considerations <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Throughout the study, full adherence to research ethics principles and standards of scientific conduct was maintained. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Authors’ Contributions <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conceptualization: Dr. S. Rafiee and Dr. M. Namazizadeh Data Collection: R. Abbasian Borujeni Data Analysis: Dr. F. Tojari Manuscript Writing: R. Abbasian Borujeni Review and Editing: Dr. S. Rafiee Responsible for Funding: Dr. S. Rafiee Literature Review: Dr. S. Rafiee, R. Abbasian Borujeni, Dr. M. Namazizadeh Project Management: Dr. S. Rafiee Other Contributions: N/A Conflict of Interest <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The authors declare no conflicts of interest in relation to this study. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Acknowledgments <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This research is derived from a doctoral dissertation. The authors express sincere gratitude to all participants and organizations involved in facilitating this study. Extended Abstract Background and Purpose <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a prevalent neuro-motor condition affecting school-aged children, marked by significant impairments in motor performance that interfere with academic and everyday functioning. Cognitive functions, particularly cognitive flexibility, are closely intertwined with motor skill acquisition, and deficits in these areas often co-occur in children with DCD. Historically, interventions have focused separately on motor or cognitive domains; however, limited evidence exists comparing the efficacy of cognitive rehabilitation, purposeful-movement play, and their combined application. Purposeful-movement play involves physically engaging tasks with structured goals, potentially promoting both motor coordination and cognitive skills by enhancing motivation and active participation. Cognitive rehabilitation, especially computerized modalities, aims to restore executive functions through repetitive, targeted exercises. This study aimed to compare the effects of cognitive rehabilitation, purposeful-movement play, and a combined intervention on cognitive flexibility and motor coordination in girls with DCD. We hypothesized that integrating cognitive and motor interventions would yield superior therapeutic benefits. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Methods <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This semi-experimental, applied study employed a mixed factorial design with a between-subjects factor (intervention type: cognitive rehabilitation, purposeful-movement play, combined, control) and a within-subjects factor (time: pre-test, post-test). Sixty girls aged 7–10 years diagnosed with DCD were recruited from elementary schools in Boroujen through multi-stage screening with the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (parent version) and the Lincoln–Oseretsky Motor Proficiency Scale. Inclusion criteria were defined by age- and sex-specific cutoffs indicative of suspected DCD. Participants were randomly allocated into four groups of 15. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The cognitive rehabilitation group received training using the “Captain Log” software, which provides progressively challenging tasks targeting executive function domains including attention, memory, visual-motor coordination, and processing speed. The purposeful-movement play group engaged in selected motor games that progressively developed gross and fine motor skills, adapted from prior validated protocols and designed to maintain engagement and enjoyment (see Table 1). The combined group alternated between the two modalities across sessions. Interventions spanned eight weeks (24 sessions, three per week, 45 minutes each). The control group received no intervention. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Primary outcomes were cognitive flexibility—assessed via the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (completed categories and perseverative errors)—and motor coordination, measured by five items from the Lincoln–Oseretsky scale. Data analysis used mixed ANOVA with Tukey post hoc tests for between-group comparisons. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Results <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Baseline comparisons indicated no significant group differences in any outcome. Mixed ANOVA identified significant main effects of time on completed categories (F(1,56) = 239.5, p < 0.001, ηp² = 0.81), perseverative errors (F(1,56) = 280.3, p < 0.001, ηp² = 0.83), and motor coordination (F(1,56) = 693.6, p < 0.001, ηp² = 0.92). Significant main effects of group emerged for perseverative errors (p = 0.019) and motor coordination (p < 0.001), while completed categories showed no group effect (p = 0.098). Time × group interactions were significant for all measures, exhibiting large effect sizes for motor coordination and moderate for cognitive flexibility indices. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Post hoc comparisons revealed that all three intervention groups improved significantly more than controls for completed categories, perseverative errors, and motor coordination. No significant differences surfaced between intervention groups for completed categories, indicating equivalent efficacy. However, the combined intervention significantly outperformed purposeful-movement play in reducing perseverative errors (p < 0.05), matching cognitive rehabilitation’s effect, while purposeful-movement play and cognitive rehabilitation did not differ on this measure. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Regarding motor coordination, both combined and purposeful-movement play groups showed superior improvement compared to cognitive rehabilitation (p < 0.05), with no difference between combined and purposeful-movement play. These findings suggest both cognitive and motor-specific interventions enhance cognitive flexibility and coordination independently, but purposeful-movement play exerts a stronger influence on motor skills, whereas integrating cognitive rehabilitation yields additional cognitive flexibility improvements. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Overall, results support the hypothesis that simultaneous cognitive–motor interventions may effectively address the multifaceted deficits characteristic of DCD. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Conclusion <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The study demonstrates that cognitive rehabilitation, purposeful-movement play, and their combination effectively improve cognitive flexibility and motor coordination in girls with DCD. Purposeful-movement play, as a dynamic and task-oriented approach, delivered greater gains in motor coordination than cognitive rehabilitation alone, while the combined approach yielded enhanced reduction in perseverative errors—a key marker of cognitive flexibility. These outcomes underscore the importance of integrated approaches targeting both cognitive and motor impairments in DCD, consistent with its complex clinical presentation. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The combined intervention is especially promising for therapeutic contexts aiming to concurrently improve executive function and motor skill domains. Practitioners in school, rehabilitation, and clinical settings are encouraged to adopt structured purposeful play alongside cognitive training to maximize functional improvements. Future research should examine the long-term efficacy, ideal sequencing of interventions, and generalizability across genders and broader age ranges. Keywords: <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Neuro-motor Disability, Perseveration, Executive Functions, Motor Development, Play Therapy <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Article Message <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This investigation provides comparative evidence on the relative efficacy of cognitive rehabilitation, purposeful-movement play, and their combination for enhancing cognitive flexibility and motor coordination in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder. While all approaches produced significant benefits, purposeful-movement play favored motor improvements, and the combined protocol offered superior gains in cognitive flexibility. The findings highlight the value of integrative interventions addressing DCD’s multidimensional nature. Such strategies may be effectively implemented in educational, clinical, and rehabilitation settings to promote functional development and daily activity participation. Ethical Considerations <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Throughout the study, full adherence to research ethics principles and standards of scientific conduct was maintained. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Authors’ Contributions <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conceptualization: Dr. S. Rafiee and Dr. M. Namazizadeh Data Collection: R. Abbasian Borujeni Data Analysis: Dr. F. Tojari Manuscript Writing: R. Abbasian Borujeni Review and Editing: Dr. S. Rafiee Responsible for Funding: Dr. S. Rafiee Literature Review: Dr. S. Rafiee, R. Abbasian Borujeni, Dr. M. Namazizadeh Project Management: Dr. S. Rafiee Other Contributions: N/A Conflict of Interest <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The authors declare no conflicts of interest in relation to this study. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Acknowledgments <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This research is derived from a doctoral dissertation. The authors express sincere gratitude to all participants and organizations involved in facilitating this study.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_2274_95f8d9901ca8878e291552f001f67692.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 17 60 2025 06 22 The effectiveness of teaching local games with nonlinear and traditional methods on cognitive and social abilities of children aged 10-11 years The effectiveness of teaching local games with nonlinear and traditional methods on cognitive and social abilities of children aged 10-11 years 51 70 3522 10.22089/mbj.2023.12605.2026 FA Mina Keshavarz Phd student of Motor behavior Physical Education &amp; Sport Sciences Faculty, University of urmia, Iran 0000-0003-3234-5786 Hasan Mohammadzade Professor, Department of Motor Behavior and sport management, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran 0000-0002-6060-1479 Journal Article 2022 04 18 <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Background and Purpose <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Contemporary trends in education reflect a shift toward more participatory and effective teaching methodologies aimed at enhancing student engagement and improving learning outcomes. Within motor learning, the nonlinear constraint-led approach (CLA) has been proposed as a superior alternative to traditional teaching methods for fostering fundamental skill development in students. Rooted in dynamic systems theory and ecological psychology, this framework conceptualizes the learner as a nonlinear dynamic motor system. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Concurrently, since the late 1970s, the Teaching Games for Understanding (TGFU) model emerged as a response to growing dissatisfaction with conventional technical approaches. Developed during the 1980s, TGFU represents a learner-centric alternative designed to facilitate game-based learning in physical education. Alongside these nonlinear methods, play serves as a crucial educational and psychological modality. Researchers emphasize play as a potent vehicle for lifelong skill acquisition, significantly contributing to the enhancement of cognitive and social capacities within educational settings. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Vygotsky’s theory reinforces the inseparability of cognitive and social abilities, highlighting their interdependence in human development. Cognitive abilities encompass innate neurological capacities responsible for executing both simple and complex tasks. Social abilities, conversely, are foundational tools enabling communication, learning, social bonding, and the formation of healthy relationships—essential competencies fostering children’s early development. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">A fundamental objective of schooling is to facilitate optimal learning for every student, necessitating tailored support aligned with their abilities, interests, and motivations. Despite the evident advantages of CLA and TGFU, no singular approach sufficiently addresses the breadth of educational content or contexts encountered, leading to advocacy for hybridized methodologies that integrate critical elements from both. In this context, the current study investigates whether a hybrid approach combining native-local games with CLA and TGFU methods positively influences fifth-grade students’ cognitive and social abilities. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Methods <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">This semi-experimental field study utilized a pre-test/post-test design. The population comprised all fifth-grade students in Tabriz city, with a purposive sample of 55 girls aged 10 to 11 years (mean 10.78 ± 0.93) randomly assigned to one of four groups: CLA (n=14), TGFU (n=14), a hybrid CLA/TGFU group (n=13), and a traditional instruction group (n=14). Inclusion criteria mandated physical and mental health, written parental consent, and no prior exposure to nonlinear pedagogies or native-local games within physical education classes. Participants unable to engage fully or those with injuries as certified by physical education teachers were excluded. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Four physical education teachers, each with 10 to 20 years of elementary teaching experience, administered the interventions. Three instructors taught CLA, TGFU, and the hybrid program respectively through local games, while the fourth conducted traditional instruction. The program spanned 12 weeks, with three 60-minute sessions per week aligned with each group’s designated pedagogical framework. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Cognitive and social abilities were assessed utilizing the Caglab software and the Social-Emotional and Resilience Scale, respectively. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Nonlinear approaches incorporated the following characteristics: <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">A student-centered environment facilitating learner exploration and problem-solving. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Manipulation of constraints across task, environmental, and individual domains, such as varying equipment and play area dimensions to tailor challenges for individual skill acquisition. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Traditional instruction was characterized by: <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">A teacher-centered model emphasizing direct instruction. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Comparison of student progress among peers. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Repetitive practice of predetermined skills with fixed exercise tempos. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Rigid adherence to game structure and rules. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Results<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Mixed-design ANOVA revealed significant improvements in both cognitive and social abilities in the hybrid group from pre-test to post-test. Analysis suggested that the hybrid program accounted for approximately 66% of the variance in cognitive ability improvement and 75% in social ability enhancement. Conversely, the traditional instruction group exhibited no significant changes in these domains. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conclusion<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Findings indicate that combining the constraint-led approach with Teaching Games for Understanding substantially enhances children’s cognitive and social capabilities simultaneously. These results underscore the imperative to equip physical education teachers with the skills and knowledge to implement hybrid pedagogical approaches effectively. Through mindful facilitation, educators can guide learners to engage reflectively with social interactions and cognitive challenges inherent in gameplay. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Keywords:<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Traditional Games, Hybrid Approaches, Cognitive Ability, Social Ability, Students <span style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Ethical considerations <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The ethical considerations pertain to a research project under the ethical code IR/SSRI.REC.1401.1366, which is derived from the doctoral dissertation of Mina Keshavarz titled "The effectiveness of local-traditional games using constraint-based teaching methods, teaching games for understanding, and game sense on motor skills, knowledge structure, and cognitive and social abilities of children." This research is being conducted under the supervision of Dr. Hassan Mohammadzadeh at the Faculty of Physical Education, Urmia University. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Authors’ Contributions<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conceptualization: Hasan Mohammadzade, Mina Keshavarz Data Collection: Mina Keshavarz Data Analysis: Hasan Mohammadzade, Mina Keshavarz Manuscript Writing: Hasan Mohammadzade, Mina Keshavarz Review and Editing: Hasan Mohammadzade Funding: Hasan Mohammadzade Literature Review: Mina Keshavarz Project Management: Hasan Mohammadzade <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conflict of Interest <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The authors declare no conflicts of interest. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Acknowledgments<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The authors sincerely thank all individuals who participated in and supported the implementation of this research. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Background and Purpose <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Contemporary trends in education reflect a shift toward more participatory and effective teaching methodologies aimed at enhancing student engagement and improving learning outcomes. Within motor learning, the nonlinear constraint-led approach (CLA) has been proposed as a superior alternative to traditional teaching methods for fostering fundamental skill development in students. Rooted in dynamic systems theory and ecological psychology, this framework conceptualizes the learner as a nonlinear dynamic motor system. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Concurrently, since the late 1970s, the Teaching Games for Understanding (TGFU) model emerged as a response to growing dissatisfaction with conventional technical approaches. Developed during the 1980s, TGFU represents a learner-centric alternative designed to facilitate game-based learning in physical education. Alongside these nonlinear methods, play serves as a crucial educational and psychological modality. Researchers emphasize play as a potent vehicle for lifelong skill acquisition, significantly contributing to the enhancement of cognitive and social capacities within educational settings. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Vygotsky’s theory reinforces the inseparability of cognitive and social abilities, highlighting their interdependence in human development. Cognitive abilities encompass innate neurological capacities responsible for executing both simple and complex tasks. Social abilities, conversely, are foundational tools enabling communication, learning, social bonding, and the formation of healthy relationships—essential competencies fostering children’s early development. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">A fundamental objective of schooling is to facilitate optimal learning for every student, necessitating tailored support aligned with their abilities, interests, and motivations. Despite the evident advantages of CLA and TGFU, no singular approach sufficiently addresses the breadth of educational content or contexts encountered, leading to advocacy for hybridized methodologies that integrate critical elements from both. In this context, the current study investigates whether a hybrid approach combining native-local games with CLA and TGFU methods positively influences fifth-grade students’ cognitive and social abilities. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Methods <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">This semi-experimental field study utilized a pre-test/post-test design. The population comprised all fifth-grade students in Tabriz city, with a purposive sample of 55 girls aged 10 to 11 years (mean 10.78 ± 0.93) randomly assigned to one of four groups: CLA (n=14), TGFU (n=14), a hybrid CLA/TGFU group (n=13), and a traditional instruction group (n=14). Inclusion criteria mandated physical and mental health, written parental consent, and no prior exposure to nonlinear pedagogies or native-local games within physical education classes. Participants unable to engage fully or those with injuries as certified by physical education teachers were excluded. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Four physical education teachers, each with 10 to 20 years of elementary teaching experience, administered the interventions. Three instructors taught CLA, TGFU, and the hybrid program respectively through local games, while the fourth conducted traditional instruction. The program spanned 12 weeks, with three 60-minute sessions per week aligned with each group’s designated pedagogical framework. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Cognitive and social abilities were assessed utilizing the Caglab software and the Social-Emotional and Resilience Scale, respectively. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Nonlinear approaches incorporated the following characteristics: <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">A student-centered environment facilitating learner exploration and problem-solving. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Manipulation of constraints across task, environmental, and individual domains, such as varying equipment and play area dimensions to tailor challenges for individual skill acquisition. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Traditional instruction was characterized by: <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">A teacher-centered model emphasizing direct instruction. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Comparison of student progress among peers. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Repetitive practice of predetermined skills with fixed exercise tempos. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Rigid adherence to game structure and rules. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Results<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Mixed-design ANOVA revealed significant improvements in both cognitive and social abilities in the hybrid group from pre-test to post-test. Analysis suggested that the hybrid program accounted for approximately 66% of the variance in cognitive ability improvement and 75% in social ability enhancement. Conversely, the traditional instruction group exhibited no significant changes in these domains. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conclusion<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Findings indicate that combining the constraint-led approach with Teaching Games for Understanding substantially enhances children’s cognitive and social capabilities simultaneously. These results underscore the imperative to equip physical education teachers with the skills and knowledge to implement hybrid pedagogical approaches effectively. Through mindful facilitation, educators can guide learners to engage reflectively with social interactions and cognitive challenges inherent in gameplay. <span style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Ethical considerations <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The ethical considerations pertain to a research project under the ethical code IR/SSRI.REC.1401.1366, which is derived from the doctoral dissertation of Mina Keshavarz titled "The effectiveness of local-traditional games using constraint-based teaching methods, teaching games for understanding, and game sense on motor skills, knowledge structure, and cognitive and social abilities of children." This research is being conducted under the supervision of Dr. Hassan Mohammadzadeh at the Faculty of Physical Education, Urmia University. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Authors’ Contributions<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conceptualization: Hasan Mohammadzade, Mina Keshavarz Data Collection: Mina Keshavarz Data Analysis: Hasan Mohammadzade, Mina Keshavarz Manuscript Writing: Hasan Mohammadzade, Mina Keshavarz Review and Editing: Hasan Mohammadzade Funding: Hasan Mohammadzade Literature Review: Mina Keshavarz Project Management: Hasan Mohammadzade <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conflict of Interest <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The authors declare no conflicts of interest. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Acknowledgments<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The authors sincerely thank all individuals who participated in and supported the implementation of this research. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Background and Purpose <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Contemporary trends in education reflect a shift toward more participatory and effective teaching methodologies aimed at enhancing student engagement and improving learning outcomes. Within motor learning, the nonlinear constraint-led approach (CLA) has been proposed as a superior alternative to traditional teaching methods for fostering fundamental skill development in students. Rooted in dynamic systems theory and ecological psychology, this framework conceptualizes the learner as a nonlinear dynamic motor system. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Concurrently, since the late 1970s, the Teaching Games for Understanding (TGFU) model emerged as a response to growing dissatisfaction with conventional technical approaches. Developed during the 1980s, TGFU represents a learner-centric alternative designed to facilitate game-based learning in physical education. Alongside these nonlinear methods, play serves as a crucial educational and psychological modality. Researchers emphasize play as a potent vehicle for lifelong skill acquisition, significantly contributing to the enhancement of cognitive and social capacities within educational settings. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Vygotsky’s theory reinforces the inseparability of cognitive and social abilities, highlighting their interdependence in human development. Cognitive abilities encompass innate neurological capacities responsible for executing both simple and complex tasks. Social abilities, conversely, are foundational tools enabling communication, learning, social bonding, and the formation of healthy relationships—essential competencies fostering children’s early development. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">A fundamental objective of schooling is to facilitate optimal learning for every student, necessitating tailored support aligned with their abilities, interests, and motivations. Despite the evident advantages of CLA and TGFU, no singular approach sufficiently addresses the breadth of educational content or contexts encountered, leading to advocacy for hybridized methodologies that integrate critical elements from both. In this context, the current study investigates whether a hybrid approach combining native-local games with CLA and TGFU methods positively influences fifth-grade students’ cognitive and social abilities. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Methods <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">This semi-experimental field study utilized a pre-test/post-test design. The population comprised all fifth-grade students in Tabriz city, with a purposive sample of 55 girls aged 10 to 11 years (mean 10.78 ± 0.93) randomly assigned to one of four groups: CLA (n=14), TGFU (n=14), a hybrid CLA/TGFU group (n=13), and a traditional instruction group (n=14). Inclusion criteria mandated physical and mental health, written parental consent, and no prior exposure to nonlinear pedagogies or native-local games within physical education classes. Participants unable to engage fully or those with injuries as certified by physical education teachers were excluded. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Four physical education teachers, each with 10 to 20 years of elementary teaching experience, administered the interventions. Three instructors taught CLA, TGFU, and the hybrid program respectively through local games, while the fourth conducted traditional instruction. The program spanned 12 weeks, with three 60-minute sessions per week aligned with each group’s designated pedagogical framework. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Cognitive and social abilities were assessed utilizing the Caglab software and the Social-Emotional and Resilience Scale, respectively. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Nonlinear approaches incorporated the following characteristics: <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">A student-centered environment facilitating learner exploration and problem-solving. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Manipulation of constraints across task, environmental, and individual domains, such as varying equipment and play area dimensions to tailor challenges for individual skill acquisition. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Traditional instruction was characterized by: <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">A teacher-centered model emphasizing direct instruction. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Comparison of student progress among peers. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Repetitive practice of predetermined skills with fixed exercise tempos. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Rigid adherence to game structure and rules. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Results<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Mixed-design ANOVA revealed significant improvements in both cognitive and social abilities in the hybrid group from pre-test to post-test. Analysis suggested that the hybrid program accounted for approximately 66% of the variance in cognitive ability improvement and 75% in social ability enhancement. Conversely, the traditional instruction group exhibited no significant changes in these domains. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conclusion<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Findings indicate that combining the constraint-led approach with Teaching Games for Understanding substantially enhances children’s cognitive and social capabilities simultaneously. These results underscore the imperative to equip physical education teachers with the skills and knowledge to implement hybrid pedagogical approaches effectively. Through mindful facilitation, educators can guide learners to engage reflectively with social interactions and cognitive challenges inherent in gameplay. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Keywords:<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Traditional Games, Hybrid Approaches, Cognitive Ability, Social Ability, Students <span style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Ethical considerations <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The ethical considerations pertain to a research project under the ethical code IR/SSRI.REC.1401.1366, which is derived from the doctoral dissertation of Mina Keshavarz titled "The effectiveness of local-traditional games using constraint-based teaching methods, teaching games for understanding, and game sense on motor skills, knowledge structure, and cognitive and social abilities of children." This research is being conducted under the supervision of Dr. Hassan Mohammadzadeh at the Faculty of Physical Education, Urmia University. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Authors’ Contributions<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conceptualization: Hasan Mohammadzade, Mina Keshavarz Data Collection: Mina Keshavarz Data Analysis: Hasan Mohammadzade, Mina Keshavarz Manuscript Writing: Hasan Mohammadzade, Mina Keshavarz Review and Editing: Hasan Mohammadzade Funding: Hasan Mohammadzade Literature Review: Mina Keshavarz Project Management: Hasan Mohammadzade <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conflict of Interest <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The authors declare no conflicts of interest. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Acknowledgments<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The authors sincerely thank all individuals who participated in and supported the implementation of this research. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Background and Purpose <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Contemporary trends in education reflect a shift toward more participatory and effective teaching methodologies aimed at enhancing student engagement and improving learning outcomes. Within motor learning, the nonlinear constraint-led approach (CLA) has been proposed as a superior alternative to traditional teaching methods for fostering fundamental skill development in students. Rooted in dynamic systems theory and ecological psychology, this framework conceptualizes the learner as a nonlinear dynamic motor system. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Concurrently, since the late 1970s, the Teaching Games for Understanding (TGFU) model emerged as a response to growing dissatisfaction with conventional technical approaches. Developed during the 1980s, TGFU represents a learner-centric alternative designed to facilitate game-based learning in physical education. Alongside these nonlinear methods, play serves as a crucial educational and psychological modality. Researchers emphasize play as a potent vehicle for lifelong skill acquisition, significantly contributing to the enhancement of cognitive and social capacities within educational settings. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Vygotsky’s theory reinforces the inseparability of cognitive and social abilities, highlighting their interdependence in human development. Cognitive abilities encompass innate neurological capacities responsible for executing both simple and complex tasks. Social abilities, conversely, are foundational tools enabling communication, learning, social bonding, and the formation of healthy relationships—essential competencies fostering children’s early development. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">A fundamental objective of schooling is to facilitate optimal learning for every student, necessitating tailored support aligned with their abilities, interests, and motivations. Despite the evident advantages of CLA and TGFU, no singular approach sufficiently addresses the breadth of educational content or contexts encountered, leading to advocacy for hybridized methodologies that integrate critical elements from both. In this context, the current study investigates whether a hybrid approach combining native-local games with CLA and TGFU methods positively influences fifth-grade students’ cognitive and social abilities. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Methods <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">This semi-experimental field study utilized a pre-test/post-test design. The population comprised all fifth-grade students in Tabriz city, with a purposive sample of 55 girls aged 10 to 11 years (mean 10.78 ± 0.93) randomly assigned to one of four groups: CLA (n=14), TGFU (n=14), a hybrid CLA/TGFU group (n=13), and a traditional instruction group (n=14). Inclusion criteria mandated physical and mental health, written parental consent, and no prior exposure to nonlinear pedagogies or native-local games within physical education classes. Participants unable to engage fully or those with injuries as certified by physical education teachers were excluded. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Four physical education teachers, each with 10 to 20 years of elementary teaching experience, administered the interventions. Three instructors taught CLA, TGFU, and the hybrid program respectively through local games, while the fourth conducted traditional instruction. The program spanned 12 weeks, with three 60-minute sessions per week aligned with each group’s designated pedagogical framework. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Cognitive and social abilities were assessed utilizing the Caglab software and the Social-Emotional and Resilience Scale, respectively. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Nonlinear approaches incorporated the following characteristics: <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">A student-centered environment facilitating learner exploration and problem-solving. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Manipulation of constraints across task, environmental, and individual domains, such as varying equipment and play area dimensions to tailor challenges for individual skill acquisition. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Traditional instruction was characterized by: <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">A teacher-centered model emphasizing direct instruction. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Comparison of student progress among peers. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Repetitive practice of predetermined skills with fixed exercise tempos. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Rigid adherence to game structure and rules. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Results<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Mixed-design ANOVA revealed significant improvements in both cognitive and social abilities in the hybrid group from pre-test to post-test. Analysis suggested that the hybrid program accounted for approximately 66% of the variance in cognitive ability improvement and 75% in social ability enhancement. Conversely, the traditional instruction group exhibited no significant changes in these domains. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conclusion<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Findings indicate that combining the constraint-led approach with Teaching Games for Understanding substantially enhances children’s cognitive and social capabilities simultaneously. These results underscore the imperative to equip physical education teachers with the skills and knowledge to implement hybrid pedagogical approaches effectively. Through mindful facilitation, educators can guide learners to engage reflectively with social interactions and cognitive challenges inherent in gameplay. <span style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Ethical considerations <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The ethical considerations pertain to a research project under the ethical code IR/SSRI.REC.1401.1366, which is derived from the doctoral dissertation of Mina Keshavarz titled "The effectiveness of local-traditional games using constraint-based teaching methods, teaching games for understanding, and game sense on motor skills, knowledge structure, and cognitive and social abilities of children." This research is being conducted under the supervision of Dr. Hassan Mohammadzadeh at the Faculty of Physical Education, Urmia University. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Authors’ Contributions<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conceptualization: Hasan Mohammadzade, Mina Keshavarz Data Collection: Mina Keshavarz Data Analysis: Hasan Mohammadzade, Mina Keshavarz Manuscript Writing: Hasan Mohammadzade, Mina Keshavarz Review and Editing: Hasan Mohammadzade Funding: Hasan Mohammadzade Literature Review: Mina Keshavarz Project Management: Hasan Mohammadzade <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conflict of Interest <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The authors declare no conflicts of interest. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Acknowledgments<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The authors sincerely thank all individuals who participated in and supported the implementation of this research.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_3522_ee14c41e92ec5c97b54cf9b74e25bd99.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 17 60 2025 06 22 The Effect of Visual Manipulation on the Oscillations of Cerebral Cortex Waves Elderly in Static Posture Control Situations The Effect of Visual Manipulation on the Oscillations of Cerebral Cortex Waves Elderly in Static Posture Control Situations 71 86 4281 10.22089/mbj.2024.15221.2111 FA Saeed Alboghebeish Department of Behavioral Sciences and Cognitive and Sports Technology Faculty of Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran Mahin Aghdaei Department of Behavioral Sciences and Cognitive and Sports Technology Faculty of Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran Reza Khosrowabadi Institute for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran Alirza Farsi Department of Behavioral Sciences and Cognitive and Sports Technology Faculty of Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran 0000-0002-2086-6632 Journal Article 2023 07 06 Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Maintaining posture is a complex motor task that becomes increasingly challenging for elderly individuals due to the integration demands of various sensory inputs. The ability to sustain equilibrium in static postures relies on the central nervous system’s capability to regulate movements and postural adjustments, ensuring that the body's center of mass (COM) remains within the base of support as represented by the center of pressure (COP). The inverted pendulum model, described by Choi and Kim (2008), serves as a fundamental framework for conceptualizing human postural control. Within this paradigm, the COM oscillates forward while the COP generates a compensatory inward force that re-centers the COM over the support base. This study aimed to explore how vision manipulation influences posture control and cerebral cortical activity in older adults. Methods Sixty healthy elderly volunteers aged 65 to 74 years—equally divided between men and women to enhance external validity—participated in this study. During static postural control tasks, participants stood on a stationary Biodex Balance System platform, instructed to maintain posture without using hand or upper body muscle contractions. The protocol comprised two trials: eyes open and eyes closed, each lasting 60 seconds. Electroencephalogram (EEG) data were collected using a portable, wireless system (mBrainTrain®, Belgrade, Serbia). Following the international 10-20 system, Ag/AgCl electrodes were placed on the scalp at positions including Fp1, Fp2, AFz, F3, Fz, F4, T7, C3, Cz, C4, T8, CPz, P7, P3, Pz, P4, P8, POz, O1, O2, M1, and M2, with FPz as the ground and FCz as the reference. Preprocessing used the EEGLab toolbox and included visual artifact detection, bandpass filtering (0.1–50 Hz), and independent component analysis (ICA) implemented via MATLAB R2022b scripts. ICA facilitated removal of artifacts such as eye blinks and muscle activity. EEG signals were filtered into five frequency bands: delta (1–4 Hz), theta (4–8 Hz), alpha (8–13 Hz), beta (13–30 Hz), and gamma (30–50 Hz). Statistical analysis employed custom MATLAB scripts enabling spectral power density computation and inferential testing. Results A mixed ANOVA assessed absolute power spectral density across conditions, channels (24), and frequency bands, revealing significant effects (F (2.66,276) = 3.71, p = 0.0001, η² = 0.26). Dependent t-tests comparing brain regions identified distinct topographical variations. Note: EO= eye open, EC=eye closed There are no differences in the Delta band between the control condition and static postural control with eyes open or closed. Conclusion The sensorimotor cortex, parietal cortex, left occipital, temporal, central-parietal, and parietal-occipital regions collectively contribute to static postural regulation. During static balance control, the parietal cortex exhibited oscillations across theta, alpha, beta, and gamma bands regardless of visual manipulation context. A particularly notable finding was the significant increase of gamma band activity in the parietal lobe (P3) and frontal lobe (F7) when contrasting eyes-open and eyes-closed conditions. This supports the hypothesis that gamma oscillations in these cortical areas facilitate preparatory motor responses necessary for balance maintenance. Consistent with these results, Slobounov et al. (2005) documented heightened gamma activity at 40 Hz in frontal and central regions preceding compensatory postural adjustments during impaired balance conditions. Keywords: Somatosensory, Parietal Cortex, Frontal Lobe, Aging Article Message This study highlights the critical role of cortical oscillations in sustaining static posture in older adults, especially under visual input manipulation. Parietal, sensorimotor, frontal, and occipital cortices prominently contribute, reflecting a shift toward cortical conscious control mechanisms rather than automatic subcortical processes. This adaptive neurophysiological strategy likely compensates for age-related sensory and neuromuscular declines. Understanding these mechanisms underscores the necessity for brain-centered rehabilitation and balance training designs aimed at fall risk reduction and functional independence enhancement in the elderly. Ethical Considerations This investigation was approved by the Shahid Beheshti University Ethics Committee (Code: IR.SBU.REC.1400.103). Authors’ Contributions Conceptualization: Saeed Alboghebeish, Mahin Aghdaei, Reza Khosrowabadi, Alireza Farsi Data Collection: Saeed Alboghebeish, Alireza Farsi Data Analysis: Saeed Alboghebeish, Reza Khosrowabadi, Alireza Farsi Manuscript Writing: Saeed Alboghebeish, Mahin Aghdaei, Reza Khosrowabadi, Alireza Farsi Review and Editing: Saeed Alboghebeish, Mahin Aghdaei, Reza Khosrowabadi, Alireza Farsi Funding Responsibility: Saeed Alboghebeish, Alireza Farsi Literature Review: Saeed Alboghebeish, Mahin Aghdaei, Reza Khosrowabadi, Alireza Farsi Project Management: Saeed Alboghebeish, Alireza Farsi Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge all participants who contributed to this research. Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Maintaining posture is a complex motor task that becomes increasingly challenging for elderly individuals due to the integration demands of various sensory inputs. The ability to sustain equilibrium in static postures relies on the central nervous system’s capability to regulate movements and postural adjustments, ensuring that the body's center of mass (COM) remains within the base of support as represented by the center of pressure (COP). The inverted pendulum model, described by Choi and Kim (2008), serves as a fundamental framework for conceptualizing human postural control. Within this paradigm, the COM oscillates forward while the COP generates a compensatory inward force that re-centers the COM over the support base. This study aimed to explore how vision manipulation influences posture control and cerebral cortical activity in older adults. Methods Sixty healthy elderly volunteers aged 65 to 74 years—equally divided between men and women to enhance external validity—participated in this study. During static postural control tasks, participants stood on a stationary Biodex Balance System platform, instructed to maintain posture without using hand or upper body muscle contractions. The protocol comprised two trials: eyes open and eyes closed, each lasting 60 seconds. Electroencephalogram (EEG) data were collected using a portable, wireless system (mBrainTrain®, Belgrade, Serbia). Following the international 10-20 system, Ag/AgCl electrodes were placed on the scalp at positions including Fp1, Fp2, AFz, F3, Fz, F4, T7, C3, Cz, C4, T8, CPz, P7, P3, Pz, P4, P8, POz, O1, O2, M1, and M2, with FPz as the ground and FCz as the reference. Preprocessing used the EEGLab toolbox and included visual artifact detection, bandpass filtering (0.1–50 Hz), and independent component analysis (ICA) implemented via MATLAB R2022b scripts. ICA facilitated removal of artifacts such as eye blinks and muscle activity. EEG signals were filtered into five frequency bands: delta (1–4 Hz), theta (4–8 Hz), alpha (8–13 Hz), beta (13–30 Hz), and gamma (30–50 Hz). Statistical analysis employed custom MATLAB scripts enabling spectral power density computation and inferential testing. Results A mixed ANOVA assessed absolute power spectral density across conditions, channels (24), and frequency bands, revealing significant effects (F (2.66,276) = 3.71, p = 0.0001, η² = 0.26). Dependent t-tests comparing brain regions identified distinct topographical variations. Note: EO= eye open, EC=eye closed There are no differences in the Delta band between the control condition and static postural control with eyes open or closed. Conclusion The sensorimotor cortex, parietal cortex, left occipital, temporal, central-parietal, and parietal-occipital regions collectively contribute to static postural regulation. During static balance control, the parietal cortex exhibited oscillations across theta, alpha, beta, and gamma bands regardless of visual manipulation context. A particularly notable finding was the significant increase of gamma band activity in the parietal lobe (P3) and frontal lobe (F7) when contrasting eyes-open and eyes-closed conditions. This supports the hypothesis that gamma oscillations in these cortical areas facilitate preparatory motor responses necessary for balance maintenance. Consistent with these results, Slobounov et al. (2005) documented heightened gamma activity at 40 Hz in frontal and central regions preceding compensatory postural adjustments during impaired balance conditions. Keywords: Somatosensory, Parietal Cortex, Frontal Lobe, Aging Article Message This study highlights the critical role of cortical oscillations in sustaining static posture in older adults, especially under visual input manipulation. Parietal, sensorimotor, frontal, and occipital cortices prominently contribute, reflecting a shift toward cortical conscious control mechanisms rather than automatic subcortical processes. This adaptive neurophysiological strategy likely compensates for age-related sensory and neuromuscular declines. Understanding these mechanisms underscores the necessity for brain-centered rehabilitation and balance training designs aimed at fall risk reduction and functional independence enhancement in the elderly. Ethical Considerations This investigation was approved by the Shahid Beheshti University Ethics Committee (Code: IR.SBU.REC.1400.103). Authors’ Contributions Conceptualization: Saeed Alboghebeish, Mahin Aghdaei, Reza Khosrowabadi, Alireza Farsi Data Collection: Saeed Alboghebeish, Alireza Farsi Data Analysis: Saeed Alboghebeish, Reza Khosrowabadi, Alireza Farsi Manuscript Writing: Saeed Alboghebeish, Mahin Aghdaei, Reza Khosrowabadi, Alireza Farsi Review and Editing: Saeed Alboghebeish, Mahin Aghdaei, Reza Khosrowabadi, Alireza Farsi Funding Responsibility: Saeed Alboghebeish, Alireza Farsi Literature Review: Saeed Alboghebeish, Mahin Aghdaei, Reza Khosrowabadi, Alireza Farsi Project Management: Saeed Alboghebeish, Alireza Farsi Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge all participants who contributed to this research.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4281_a732804c8566fc8f498947ea59a841f8.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 17 60 2025 06 22 The Effect of Goal-Directed Organic Self-Talk on Negative Spontaneous Thoughts and Motor Performance in the Throwing Competition The Effect of Goal-Directed Organic Self-Talk on Negative Spontaneous Thoughts and Motor Performance in the Throwing Competition 17 28 4779 10.22089/mbj.2025.16921.2169 FA Amir Dana Associate of professor, Department of physical education, Tabriz Branch , Islamic Azad university, Tabriz, Iran 0000-0003-0191-7868 Mansour Khalilzadeh Kouchameshki Assistant Prof, Department of Physical Education and sport science, Salmas Branch, Islamic Azad University, Salmas, Iran. Journal Article 2024 06 20 Extended Abstract Background and Purpose This study investigated the impact of targeted organic self-talk on negative automatic thoughts and motor performance during a dart-throwing competition among students of Islamic Azad University of Tabriz. Participants included 36 healthy, right-handed students with no prior experience in dart throwing, who were randomly assigned to either a targeted organic self-talk intervention group or a control group. Negative automatic thoughts were measured using the Negative Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (QNS), while motor performance was assessed by calculating the absolute error between the dart’s hitting point and the target center. The results demonstrated that the targeted organic self-talk group exhibited improved dart-throwing accuracy alongside a significant reduction in negative automatic thoughts compared to the control group. These findings imply that targeted organic self-talk serves as an effective intervention to enhance athletic performance and mitigate negative cognitive patterns in athletes. Emotions are critical in competitive sports, influencing performance by either facilitating or impairing execution. Emotion regulation constitutes a fundamental concept within sports psychology, encompassing various strategies such as situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation. Among these, cognitive change—altering one's interpretation of situational stimuli—is widely considered the most effective. Targeted organic self-talk represents a subtype of cognitive change, involving deliberate self-directed verbalizations aimed at problem-solving or performance enhancement. This study sought to evaluate the influence of such targeted organic self-talk on negative automatic thoughts and motor performance within the context of dart throwing competition. Methods The sample consisted of 36 students from Islamic Azad University of Tabriz who were randomly allocated into two groups: an intervention group receiving targeted organic self-talk training and a control group without intervention. Initially, participants engaged in a pre-test dart-throwing competition, during which their negative automatic thoughts and motor performance were evaluated. Subsequently, the intervention group underwent a targeted organic self-talk program, whereas the control group did not receive any specific intervention. Following this, a post-test dart throwing session was conducted with the same assessments of negative thoughts and motor performance. Findings The analysis revealed that participants in the targeted organic self-talk group significantly improved their dart-throwing performance, exhibiting decreased absolute error scores. Concurrently, this group demonstrated a notable reduction in negative automatic thoughts compared to the control group, which showed no comparable gains. These results support the efficacy of targeted organic self-talk as a viable cognitive intervention for enhancing motor skill execution and reducing detrimental automatic negative cognitions in athletic contexts. Conclusion This study confirms the utility of targeted organic self-talk as an effective intervention to boost athletic performance while diminishing negative cognitive interference. Employing such intentional self-talk facilitates athletes’ regulation of thoughts and emotions, fostering improved motor performance and decreased psychological distress. These conclusions align with prior research substantiating the role of targeted organic self-talk in sports performance enhancement. Targeted organic self-talk offers promising applications for improving performance and cognitive control among athletes. Future research should explore its effectiveness across diverse sports disciplines and athlete populations. Additionally, investigations into the underlying psychological and neurocognitive mechanisms mediating the benefits of targeted self-talk are warranted. Practically, these findings suggest valuable applications for sports coaches and psychologists. Coaches can integrate targeted organic self-talk techniques to optimize their athletes’ performance and mental resilience. Sports psychologists may employ these methods to equip athletes with coping strategies and promote overall psychological well-being. This study has several limitations, including a relatively small sample size and the use of university students as participants, which may limit generalizability. Furthermore, the investigation focused exclusively on dart throwing performance; thus, replication in other sports is necessary to broaden applicability. Keywords: Organic Self-Talk, Goal-Directed, Negative Thoughts, Motor Performance, Dart Throwing Article Message Organic self-talk represents a novel arena within self-talk research, and this study invites further examination of its effects on athletic performance across varied sports and contexts. Ethical Considerations This research was conducted in strict accordance with ethical standards for human research. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to participation. Authors’ Contributions The first author was responsible for the research design, data collection, analysis, and drafting of the final report. The second author contributed to data analysis, interpretation, and manuscript writing. Conflict of Interest The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest concerning the publication of this manuscript. Acknowledgments The authors extend their sincere gratitude to all study participants for their cooperation. Extended Abstract Background and Purpose This study investigated the impact of targeted organic self-talk on negative automatic thoughts and motor performance during a dart-throwing competition among students of Islamic Azad University of Tabriz. Participants included 36 healthy, right-handed students with no prior experience in dart throwing, who were randomly assigned to either a targeted organic self-talk intervention group or a control group. Negative automatic thoughts were measured using the Negative Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (QNS), while motor performance was assessed by calculating the absolute error between the dart’s hitting point and the target center. The results demonstrated that the targeted organic self-talk group exhibited improved dart-throwing accuracy alongside a significant reduction in negative automatic thoughts compared to the control group. These findings imply that targeted organic self-talk serves as an effective intervention to enhance athletic performance and mitigate negative cognitive patterns in athletes. Emotions are critical in competitive sports, influencing performance by either facilitating or impairing execution. Emotion regulation constitutes a fundamental concept within sports psychology, encompassing various strategies such as situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation. Among these, cognitive change—altering one's interpretation of situational stimuli—is widely considered the most effective. Targeted organic self-talk represents a subtype of cognitive change, involving deliberate self-directed verbalizations aimed at problem-solving or performance enhancement. This study sought to evaluate the influence of such targeted organic self-talk on negative automatic thoughts and motor performance within the context of dart throwing competition. Methods The sample consisted of 36 students from Islamic Azad University of Tabriz who were randomly allocated into two groups: an intervention group receiving targeted organic self-talk training and a control group without intervention. Initially, participants engaged in a pre-test dart-throwing competition, during which their negative automatic thoughts and motor performance were evaluated. Subsequently, the intervention group underwent a targeted organic self-talk program, whereas the control group did not receive any specific intervention. Following this, a post-test dart throwing session was conducted with the same assessments of negative thoughts and motor performance. Findings The analysis revealed that participants in the targeted organic self-talk group significantly improved their dart-throwing performance, exhibiting decreased absolute error scores. Concurrently, this group demonstrated a notable reduction in negative automatic thoughts compared to the control group, which showed no comparable gains. These results support the efficacy of targeted organic self-talk as a viable cognitive intervention for enhancing motor skill execution and reducing detrimental automatic negative cognitions in athletic contexts. Conclusion This study confirms the utility of targeted organic self-talk as an effective intervention to boost athletic performance while diminishing negative cognitive interference. Employing such intentional self-talk facilitates athletes’ regulation of thoughts and emotions, fostering improved motor performance and decreased psychological distress. These conclusions align with prior research substantiating the role of targeted organic self-talk in sports performance enhancement. Targeted organic self-talk offers promising applications for improving performance and cognitive control among athletes. Future research should explore its effectiveness across diverse sports disciplines and athlete populations. Additionally, investigations into the underlying psychological and neurocognitive mechanisms mediating the benefits of targeted self-talk are warranted. Practically, these findings suggest valuable applications for sports coaches and psychologists. Coaches can integrate targeted organic self-talk techniques to optimize their athletes’ performance and mental resilience. Sports psychologists may employ these methods to equip athletes with coping strategies and promote overall psychological well-being. This study has several limitations, including a relatively small sample size and the use of university students as participants, which may limit generalizability. Furthermore, the investigation focused exclusively on dart throwing performance; thus, replication in other sports is necessary to broaden applicability. Keywords: Organic Self-Talk, Goal-Directed, Negative Thoughts, Motor Performance, Dart Throwing Article Message Organic self-talk represents a novel arena within self-talk research, and this study invites further examination of its effects on athletic performance across varied sports and contexts. Ethical Considerations This research was conducted in strict accordance with ethical standards for human research. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to participation. Authors’ Contributions The first author was responsible for the research design, data collection, analysis, and drafting of the final report. The second author contributed to data analysis, interpretation, and manuscript writing. Conflict of Interest The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest concerning the publication of this manuscript. Acknowledgments The authors extend their sincere gratitude to all study participants for their cooperation.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4779_eafc8fe9c61d6760ae284c29840bbf0b.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 17 60 2025 06 22 Effect of Electrical Muscle Stimulation Training on Balance, Self-Efficacy, and Fear of Falling in Elderly Women Effect of Electrical Muscle Stimulation Training on Balance, Self-Efficacy, and Fear of Falling in Elderly Women 87 104 4677 10.22089/mbj.2025.16243.2137 FA Maedeh Ahmadpour PhD Student, Department of Sports Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences, Faculty of Sports and Health Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran Meysam Rezaei Associate Professor of MotorBehavior Islsamic Azad University. Mashhad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Mashhad, Iran Journal Article 2024 01 25 Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Aging inevitably brings physiological changes, particularly within systems governing balance and mobility, often leading to reduced gait stability, diminished functional performance, and increased fear of falling. These alterations can severely impact the independence, confidence, and overall quality of life of elderly individuals—especially women, who face a higher risk of fall-related injuries. Given that falls remain a leading cause of morbidity and loss of autonomy among older adults, the identification of safe, non-invasive, and effective interventions is a pressing concern. This quasi-experimental study aimed to evaluate the effects of electrical muscle stimulation (EMS) training on static and dynamic balance, task-specific self-efficacy, and fear of falling in elderly women aged 65 to 70 years. By addressing both physical and psychological aspects of fall risk, this research sought to determine the extent to which EMS might serve as a practical and accessible strategy to enhance motor function and psychological well-being in this vulnerable population. Materials and Methods The study employed a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design involving an experimental group undergoing EMS training and a control group receiving no intervention. Twenty elderly women from Mashhad, Iran, aged between 65 and 70 years, voluntarily participated and were randomly assigned to one of the two groups, ensuring baseline equivalency. Inclusion criteria included independent ambulation without assistive devices and no diagnosed neurological or musculoskeletal conditions impairing balance or mobility. The EMS protocol spanned eight weeks, consisting of two weekly sessions of 20 minutes each. The intervention unfolded in three progressive phases: a two-week adaptation period, a two-week initial training phase, and a four-week main training phase. Electrodes were placed on key lower limb and core muscles—namely, the quadriceps, hamstrings, gluteus, lumbar, and abdominal muscles—with stimulation intensity and duration gradually increased to foster neuromuscular adaptation. Balance assessments encompassed static and dynamic domains. Static balance was measured using the Biodex Balance System and the Sharpened Romberg test, while dynamic balance was evaluated through the Timed Up and Go (TUG) test and the Fullerton Advanced Balance (FAB) scale. Psychological measures included the Persian-validated Self-Efficacy for Everyday Activities (SEEA) questionnaire and the Falls Efficacy Scale-International (FES-I), assessing task-specific self-efficacy and fear of falling, respectively. Descriptive statistics summarized participant characteristics, and normality was confirmed via the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. The effects of EMS were examined using multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), detecting within-group and between-group changes. All analyses were conducted in SPSS version 24, setting significance at p < 0.05. Findings Significant improvements emerged in both static and dynamic balance measures following EMS training. The experimental group demonstrated notable gains in static balance on the Biodex Balance System (p = 0.017) and the Sharpened Romberg test (p = 0.025). Similarly, dynamic balance improved significantly in the EMS group relative to controls, with substantial enhancements in FAB scale scores (p = 0.001) and TUG test performance (p < 0.001), reflecting better functional mobility and coordination. However, EMS training did not elicit significant changes in task-specific self-efficacy or fear of falling. Although a modest non-significant reduction in fear of falling was observed (from 24.5 to 21.5), changes failed to reach statistical significance (p > 0.05). Likewise, perceived self-efficacy showed no meaningful improvement. These findings suggest that EMS alone may not be sufficient to impact psychological constructs closely tied to confidence and fear in daily activities. Several factors likely contributed to the lack of significant psychological effects, including the relatively short intervention duration, the complex multifaceted nature of self-efficacy and fear of falling, and a modest sample size limiting power for detecting subtle psychosocial changes. Despite these limitations, the physical benefits observed substantiate EMS as an effective modality for stimulating neuromuscular pathways, enhancing proprioceptive feedback, and improving muscle strength and coordination—key components underpinning postural control. Conclusion This study demonstrated that EMS training significantly enhances static and dynamic balance in elderly women, highlighting its promise as a safe, practical intervention to improve motor performance and postural stability in aging populations. Its role is particularly compelling in fall prevention programs by targeting neuromuscular activation, proprioceptive sensitivity, and lower limb strengthening. While no significant psychological improvements were documented, this may be attributable to the intervention’s duration, sample size, or the complex interplay of factors influencing self-efficacy and fear of falling. Given the increasing elderly demographic and the high incidence of fall-related injuries, EMS can be integrated effectively into rehabilitation and fitness protocols to support greater independence and reduced fall risk. Future research should explore longer EMS interventions and examine combined approaches integrating EMS with cognitive-behavioral or educational programs, aiming to holistically address both the physical and psychological dimensions relevant to fall prevention. Keywords: Electrical Muscle Stimulation, Static Balance, Dynamic Balance, Fear of Falling, Task-specific Self-efficacy, Elderly Women Article Message EMS training improves static and dynamic balance in older women and represents a safe, feasible modality for inclusion in fall prevention initiatives. Although psychological benefits were not significant, combining EMS with targeted psychological interventions is recommended for more comprehensive outcomes. Ethical Considerations Prior to study initiation, informed consent was obtained from all participants. EMS interventions were supervised professionally, adhering strictly to safety standards. Participant confidentiality was ensured, and data were handled exclusively for research purposes. Authors’ Contributions Study design, data collection, data analysis, and manuscript drafting were conducted by Maedeh Ahmadpour. Final review, project oversight, and scientific guidance were provided by Meysam Rezaei. All authors approved the final manuscript. Conflict of Interest No conflicts of interest were declared by the authors. Acknowledgments This work derives from a Master’s thesis completed at the Islamic Azad University, Mashhad Branch. The authors express sincere appreciation to all participants and supporting colleagues who contributed to the successful completion of this study. Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Aging inevitably brings physiological changes, particularly within systems governing balance and mobility, often leading to reduced gait stability, diminished functional performance, and increased fear of falling. These alterations can severely impact the independence, confidence, and overall quality of life of elderly individuals—especially women, who face a higher risk of fall-related injuries. Given that falls remain a leading cause of morbidity and loss of autonomy among older adults, the identification of safe, non-invasive, and effective interventions is a pressing concern. This quasi-experimental study aimed to evaluate the effects of electrical muscle stimulation (EMS) training on static and dynamic balance, task-specific self-efficacy, and fear of falling in elderly women aged 65 to 70 years. By addressing both physical and psychological aspects of fall risk, this research sought to determine the extent to which EMS might serve as a practical and accessible strategy to enhance motor function and psychological well-being in this vulnerable population. Materials and Methods The study employed a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design involving an experimental group undergoing EMS training and a control group receiving no intervention. Twenty elderly women from Mashhad, Iran, aged between 65 and 70 years, voluntarily participated and were randomly assigned to one of the two groups, ensuring baseline equivalency. Inclusion criteria included independent ambulation without assistive devices and no diagnosed neurological or musculoskeletal conditions impairing balance or mobility. The EMS protocol spanned eight weeks, consisting of two weekly sessions of 20 minutes each. The intervention unfolded in three progressive phases: a two-week adaptation period, a two-week initial training phase, and a four-week main training phase. Electrodes were placed on key lower limb and core muscles—namely, the quadriceps, hamstrings, gluteus, lumbar, and abdominal muscles—with stimulation intensity and duration gradually increased to foster neuromuscular adaptation. Balance assessments encompassed static and dynamic domains. Static balance was measured using the Biodex Balance System and the Sharpened Romberg test, while dynamic balance was evaluated through the Timed Up and Go (TUG) test and the Fullerton Advanced Balance (FAB) scale. Psychological measures included the Persian-validated Self-Efficacy for Everyday Activities (SEEA) questionnaire and the Falls Efficacy Scale-International (FES-I), assessing task-specific self-efficacy and fear of falling, respectively. Descriptive statistics summarized participant characteristics, and normality was confirmed via the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. The effects of EMS were examined using multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), detecting within-group and between-group changes. All analyses were conducted in SPSS version 24, setting significance at p < 0.05. Findings Significant improvements emerged in both static and dynamic balance measures following EMS training. The experimental group demonstrated notable gains in static balance on the Biodex Balance System (p = 0.017) and the Sharpened Romberg test (p = 0.025). Similarly, dynamic balance improved significantly in the EMS group relative to controls, with substantial enhancements in FAB scale scores (p = 0.001) and TUG test performance (p < 0.001), reflecting better functional mobility and coordination. However, EMS training did not elicit significant changes in task-specific self-efficacy or fear of falling. Although a modest non-significant reduction in fear of falling was observed (from 24.5 to 21.5), changes failed to reach statistical significance (p > 0.05). Likewise, perceived self-efficacy showed no meaningful improvement. These findings suggest that EMS alone may not be sufficient to impact psychological constructs closely tied to confidence and fear in daily activities. Several factors likely contributed to the lack of significant psychological effects, including the relatively short intervention duration, the complex multifaceted nature of self-efficacy and fear of falling, and a modest sample size limiting power for detecting subtle psychosocial changes. Despite these limitations, the physical benefits observed substantiate EMS as an effective modality for stimulating neuromuscular pathways, enhancing proprioceptive feedback, and improving muscle strength and coordination—key components underpinning postural control. Conclusion This study demonstrated that EMS training significantly enhances static and dynamic balance in elderly women, highlighting its promise as a safe, practical intervention to improve motor performance and postural stability in aging populations. Its role is particularly compelling in fall prevention programs by targeting neuromuscular activation, proprioceptive sensitivity, and lower limb strengthening. While no significant psychological improvements were documented, this may be attributable to the intervention’s duration, sample size, or the complex interplay of factors influencing self-efficacy and fear of falling. Given the increasing elderly demographic and the high incidence of fall-related injuries, EMS can be integrated effectively into rehabilitation and fitness protocols to support greater independence and reduced fall risk. Future research should explore longer EMS interventions and examine combined approaches integrating EMS with cognitive-behavioral or educational programs, aiming to holistically address both the physical and psychological dimensions relevant to fall prevention. Keywords: Electrical Muscle Stimulation, Static Balance, Dynamic Balance, Fear of Falling, Task-specific Self-efficacy, Elderly Women Article Message EMS training improves static and dynamic balance in older women and represents a safe, feasible modality for inclusion in fall prevention initiatives. Although psychological benefits were not significant, combining EMS with targeted psychological interventions is recommended for more comprehensive outcomes. Ethical Considerations Prior to study initiation, informed consent was obtained from all participants. EMS interventions were supervised professionally, adhering strictly to safety standards. Participant confidentiality was ensured, and data were handled exclusively for research purposes. Authors’ Contributions Study design, data collection, data analysis, and manuscript drafting were conducted by Maedeh Ahmadpour. Final review, project oversight, and scientific guidance were provided by Meysam Rezaei. All authors approved the final manuscript. Conflict of Interest No conflicts of interest were declared by the authors. Acknowledgments This work derives from a Master’s thesis completed at the Islamic Azad University, Mashhad Branch. The authors express sincere appreciation to all participants and supporting colleagues who contributed to the successful completion of this study.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4677_82ba9d6eee3f026be339bb287651c3d8.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 17 60 2025 06 22 The Effect of Direct Transcranial Electrical Stimulation of the Cerebellum on the Time to Stabilization in the Elderly The Effect of Direct Transcranial Electrical Stimulation of the Cerebellum on the Time to Stabilization in the Elderly 105 118 4679 10.22089/mbj.2025.16853.2164 FA Mosna Kazem Alkarie Department of motor behavior, faculty of sport sciences, Isfahan (khorasgan) branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran 0000-0001-6092-8802 FARZANEH DAVARI Department of Physical Education, Farhangian University, P.O. Box 14665-889, Tehran, Iran 0000-0002-4923-054X Mazen Hadi Kazar Department of Physical Education, College of Physical Education, University of Babylon, Hillah, Iraq 0009-0005-9574-9050 Zohreh Meshkati Department of motor behavior, faculty of sport sciences, Isfahan (khorasgan) branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran 0000-0002-7328-9357 Journal Article 2024 07 01 Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Maintaining balance requires the coordinated interaction of multiple systems, including sensory, musculoskeletal, and neuromuscular components (1). Age-related declines in postural control are attributed to deterioration across these systems, manifesting as reduced muscle strength, musculoskeletal deformities, cognitive impairments, and slower motor responses (2). Stair use, increasingly common due to apartment living, constitutes a daily activity notably associated with falls among older adults (3). Injuries resulting from descending stairs occur approximately three times more frequently than during ascent. An essential strategy to mitigate such injuries is the ability to rapidly regain stability after perturbations (4). Time to stabilization (TTS) quantitatively measures the body’s capacity to minimize postural sway transitioning from dynamic to static phases. In recent years, non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques have emerged as promising adjunctive therapies for balance rehabilitation in older populations (5). Specifically, cerebellar stimulation has shown efficacy in improving balance, yet challenges remain in translating these effects to real-world activities of daily living. In response, this study utilized a stair descent task performed on a force plate to realistically assess dynamic balance through TTS measurements. The primary objective was to investigate the effect of cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on TTS in elderly individuals, providing ecologically valid insights into potential therapeutic interventions targeting fall risk among this population. Methods This semi-experimental applied study employed a pretest-posttest design with a sham-controlled group. Thirty healthy elderly men aged between 60 and 75 years from Ahvaz city voluntarily participated and were randomly assigned via lottery into two groups of 15 each: cerebellar tDCS intervention and sham tDCS. Inclusion criteria required participants to: Independently walk 10 meters, Stand unassisted for at least 10 seconds, Possess normal vision, and Follow simple verbal instructions. Exclusion criteria encompassed: Limiting musculoskeletal disorders, Neurological conditions (e.g., stroke, Parkinson’s disease, paralysis), Cardiovascular disorders, Uncontrolled hypertension, Dementia (defined as scoring below 22 on the Brief Mental Status Examination), and Conditions or medication use impacting balance and movement. The study comprised three phases: pretest, intervention, and posttest. At pretest, participants completed three stair descent trials on a force plate, with two-minute rests between trials. The intervention phase spanned two weeks, entailing five consecutive daily sessions each week (totaling ten sessions). The cerebellar tDCS group underwent 20-minute daily anodal stimulation over the cerebellar cortex (anode placed 2 cm below the inion; cathode at Cz), with a constant current of 1.5 mA. The sham group received placebo stimulation following an identical protocol. Forty-eight hours after the final intervention session, participants performed three posttest stair descent trials, with TTS recorded via force plate data. Given between-group baseline differences, data were analyzed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with pretest scores as covariates, thereby effectively isolating cerebellar tDCS effects on dynamic balance compared to sham. Results Demographic variables did not differ significantly between groups: age (P = 0.86), height (P = 0.97), and weight (P = 0.11). ANCOVA revealed a significant group effect on anteroposterior TTS, with effect size η² = 0.44. The cerebellar tDCS group exhibited significantly faster stabilization than the sham group, with a mean difference of 0.78 seconds (P < 0.05). Similarly, significant differences were observed for mediolateral TTS, with η² = 0.49. The intervention group showed quicker mediolateral stabilization relative to sham by 0.55 seconds on average (P < 0.05). These findings demonstrate that cerebellar tDCS effectively improves both anteroposterior and mediolateral stabilization times compared to sham stimulation in older adults. Conclusion This study evaluated the impact of cerebellar tDCS on dynamic balance, specifically time to stabilization, during stair descent among elderly men. The results indicate that ten sessions of cerebellar tDCS significantly enhance postural stabilization in both the anteroposterior and mediolateral directions. These outcomes align with prior research such as Parsaei et al. (6), which reported improvements in static and dynamic balance following cerebellar tDCS in older males, and Ehsani et al. (5), confirming cerebellar tDCS efficacy in elderly balance enhancement. Conversely, findings diverge from Steiner et al. (7), who observed no balance improvements in young adults after cerebellar tDCS, possibly reflecting age-dependent variations in neuroplastic responses. Cerebellar tDCS likely facilitates more precise central nervous system modulation over balance fluctuations, thereby reducing fall risk and improving overall postural control in the elderly. Importantly, our study corroborated previous evidence that sham tDCS does not influence postural or gait performance, affirming that observed improvements derive from anodal cerebellar stimulation rather than placebo effects. In summary, cerebellar tDCS emerges as a promising non-invasive intervention to accelerate recovery of postural stability during ecologically valid tasks such as stair descent in older adults. These findings advocate for wider adoption and further research into cerebellar tDCS to prevent falls and promote mobility in aging populations. Keywords: Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Postural Control, Elderly Article Message This research demonstrates that cerebellar tDCS administered over ten sessions significantly improves both anteroposterior and mediolateral time to stabilization during stair descent among elderly men. These balance enhancements were absent in sham controls, underscoring the specific efficacy of cerebellar tDCS. The intervention presents a promising non-invasive therapy to improve dynamic balance and reduce fall risks in older adults performing everyday activities such as stair negotiation. Ethical Considerations All research protocols complied with ethical standards, including informed participant consent, confidentiality of data, and adherence to scientific integrity. Authors’ Contributions This article is extracted from a doctoral dissertation in Physical Education and Sport Sciences focused on motor behavior by Mosna Kazem Alkari, supervised primarily by Dr. Farzaneh Davari (responsible author), with secondary supervision by Dr. Mazin Hadi Kazr Altaie and advisory support from Dr. Zohreh Meshkati. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Acknowledgment We sincerely thank all participants for their invaluable cooperation in this research. Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Maintaining balance requires the coordinated interaction of multiple systems, including sensory, musculoskeletal, and neuromuscular components (1). Age-related declines in postural control are attributed to deterioration across these systems, manifesting as reduced muscle strength, musculoskeletal deformities, cognitive impairments, and slower motor responses (2). Stair use, increasingly common due to apartment living, constitutes a daily activity notably associated with falls among older adults (3). Injuries resulting from descending stairs occur approximately three times more frequently than during ascent. An essential strategy to mitigate such injuries is the ability to rapidly regain stability after perturbations (4). Time to stabilization (TTS) quantitatively measures the body’s capacity to minimize postural sway transitioning from dynamic to static phases. In recent years, non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques have emerged as promising adjunctive therapies for balance rehabilitation in older populations (5). Specifically, cerebellar stimulation has shown efficacy in improving balance, yet challenges remain in translating these effects to real-world activities of daily living. In response, this study utilized a stair descent task performed on a force plate to realistically assess dynamic balance through TTS measurements. The primary objective was to investigate the effect of cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on TTS in elderly individuals, providing ecologically valid insights into potential therapeutic interventions targeting fall risk among this population. Methods This semi-experimental applied study employed a pretest-posttest design with a sham-controlled group. Thirty healthy elderly men aged between 60 and 75 years from Ahvaz city voluntarily participated and were randomly assigned via lottery into two groups of 15 each: cerebellar tDCS intervention and sham tDCS. Inclusion criteria required participants to: Independently walk 10 meters, Stand unassisted for at least 10 seconds, Possess normal vision, and Follow simple verbal instructions. Exclusion criteria encompassed: Limiting musculoskeletal disorders, Neurological conditions (e.g., stroke, Parkinson’s disease, paralysis), Cardiovascular disorders, Uncontrolled hypertension, Dementia (defined as scoring below 22 on the Brief Mental Status Examination), and Conditions or medication use impacting balance and movement. The study comprised three phases: pretest, intervention, and posttest. At pretest, participants completed three stair descent trials on a force plate, with two-minute rests between trials. The intervention phase spanned two weeks, entailing five consecutive daily sessions each week (totaling ten sessions). The cerebellar tDCS group underwent 20-minute daily anodal stimulation over the cerebellar cortex (anode placed 2 cm below the inion; cathode at Cz), with a constant current of 1.5 mA. The sham group received placebo stimulation following an identical protocol. Forty-eight hours after the final intervention session, participants performed three posttest stair descent trials, with TTS recorded via force plate data. Given between-group baseline differences, data were analyzed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with pretest scores as covariates, thereby effectively isolating cerebellar tDCS effects on dynamic balance compared to sham. Results Demographic variables did not differ significantly between groups: age (P = 0.86), height (P = 0.97), and weight (P = 0.11). ANCOVA revealed a significant group effect on anteroposterior TTS, with effect size η² = 0.44. The cerebellar tDCS group exhibited significantly faster stabilization than the sham group, with a mean difference of 0.78 seconds (P < 0.05). Similarly, significant differences were observed for mediolateral TTS, with η² = 0.49. The intervention group showed quicker mediolateral stabilization relative to sham by 0.55 seconds on average (P < 0.05). These findings demonstrate that cerebellar tDCS effectively improves both anteroposterior and mediolateral stabilization times compared to sham stimulation in older adults. Conclusion This study evaluated the impact of cerebellar tDCS on dynamic balance, specifically time to stabilization, during stair descent among elderly men. The results indicate that ten sessions of cerebellar tDCS significantly enhance postural stabilization in both the anteroposterior and mediolateral directions. These outcomes align with prior research such as Parsaei et al. (6), which reported improvements in static and dynamic balance following cerebellar tDCS in older males, and Ehsani et al. (5), confirming cerebellar tDCS efficacy in elderly balance enhancement. Conversely, findings diverge from Steiner et al. (7), who observed no balance improvements in young adults after cerebellar tDCS, possibly reflecting age-dependent variations in neuroplastic responses. Cerebellar tDCS likely facilitates more precise central nervous system modulation over balance fluctuations, thereby reducing fall risk and improving overall postural control in the elderly. Importantly, our study corroborated previous evidence that sham tDCS does not influence postural or gait performance, affirming that observed improvements derive from anodal cerebellar stimulation rather than placebo effects. In summary, cerebellar tDCS emerges as a promising non-invasive intervention to accelerate recovery of postural stability during ecologically valid tasks such as stair descent in older adults. These findings advocate for wider adoption and further research into cerebellar tDCS to prevent falls and promote mobility in aging populations. Keywords: Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Postural Control, Elderly Article Message This research demonstrates that cerebellar tDCS administered over ten sessions significantly improves both anteroposterior and mediolateral time to stabilization during stair descent among elderly men. These balance enhancements were absent in sham controls, underscoring the specific efficacy of cerebellar tDCS. The intervention presents a promising non-invasive therapy to improve dynamic balance and reduce fall risks in older adults performing everyday activities such as stair negotiation. Ethical Considerations All research protocols complied with ethical standards, including informed participant consent, confidentiality of data, and adherence to scientific integrity. Authors’ Contributions This article is extracted from a doctoral dissertation in Physical Education and Sport Sciences focused on motor behavior by Mosna Kazem Alkari, supervised primarily by Dr. Farzaneh Davari (responsible author), with secondary supervision by Dr. Mazin Hadi Kazr Altaie and advisory support from Dr. Zohreh Meshkati. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Acknowledgment We sincerely thank all participants for their invaluable cooperation in this research.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4679_97788494d0cb9c4ad37af9a76290b361.pdf