Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 17 61 2025 10 23 The Effect of Sensory-Motor and Perceptual-Motor Training on Exercise and Stereotyped Behaviors in 8–12-Year-Old Children with High Functioning Autism The Effect of Sensory-Motor and Perceptual-Motor Training on Exercise and Stereotyped Behaviors in 8–12-Year-Old Children with High Functioning Autism 17 32 4773 10.22089/mbj.2025.17318.2189 FA Ali Torabi Department of Motor behavior and sports psychology, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran 0009-0003-1298-0456 Mahmoud Sheikh Department of Motor behavior and sports psychology, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran 0000-0003-4029-3568 Davood Homaninan Department of Motor behavior and sports psychology, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran Journal Article 2024 10 10 Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by deficits in social communication and restrictive, repetitive behaviors. Children with ASD often experience significant anxiety and stereotypical behaviors that compromise their quality of life, social integration, and educational progress. Anxiety manifests as heightened arousal, avoidance, and distress in response to overwhelming sensory stimuli. Stereotypical behaviors serve as self-regulatory mechanisms but hinder engagement in adaptive behaviors and learning. Recent studies highlight movement-based interventions targeting sensory-motor and perceptual-motor integration as promising treatments for ASD symptoms. Sensory-motor exercises improve integration of sensory inputs and motor outputs, facilitating nervous system regulation and emotional control. Perceptual-motor activities emphasize cognitive-motor coordination through planning, sequencing, and goal-directed actions, enhancing executive function and behavioral flexibility. However, comparative evidence on the effects of sensory-motor versus perceptual-motor training on anxiety and stereotypical behaviors remains limited. This study assessed the comparative effectiveness of these interventions in children aged 8–12 years diagnosed with ASD, providing empirical guidance for targeted therapeutic programs. Methods This quasi-experimental randomized controlled study involved three groups: sensory-motor intervention, perceptual-motor intervention, and control. Twenty-four children meeting DSM-5 criteria for ASD and aged 8–12 years were purposively sampled, excluding those with severe intellectual disability or physical impairments preventing participation. Participants were randomly assigned equally (n=8 per group). The sensory-motor group engaged in exercises enhancing sensory processing and motor coordination, including balance training, obstacle navigation, proprioceptive stimulation, and vestibular integration to improve body awareness and spatial movement. The perceptual-motor group performed tasks combining motor and cognitive elements, such as memory-based movement sequences, spatial orientation games, and rhythm-based exercises demanding executive control. Interventions lasted 12 weeks, with three 60-minute sessions weekly, delivered in small groups by trained pediatric motor and cognitive therapists. The control group continued routine care without motor-based activities. Outcomes measured pre- and post-intervention included anxiety via the Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale (SCAS) and stereotypical behaviors via the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R). Data were analyzed using MANCOVA controlling for baseline scores, with Tukey’s HSD for pairwise group comparisons. Results Post-test analyses revealed significant group effects on anxiety and stereotypy scores. Both intervention groups showed reduced anxiety and stereotypical behaviors versus controls, indicating motor-based training efficacy. Sensory-motor training yielded the largest improvements. Significant anxiety reductions were noted, particularly in subscales of uncertainty, fear, and arousal, suggesting sensory-motor integration plays a critical role in regulating emotional responses and physiological arousal in children with ASD. Regarding stereotypical behaviors, sensory-motor training again demonstrated prominent reductions, likely due to proprioceptive and vestibular activities providing organizing input to the nervous system, thereby diminishing self-stimulatory behaviors. The perceptual-motor group also improved on these measures but to a lesser degree, indicating that while cognitive-motor activities enhance attentional engagement, direct sensory regulation through sensory-motor training more effectively reduces distress-driven behaviors. The control group showed no significant changes, reinforcing the attribution of improvements to the interventions. Conclusion This study supports structured physical interventions for managing core ASD symptoms. Both sensory-motor and perceptual-motor exercises reduce anxiety and stereotypical behaviors; however, sensory-motor approaches offer superior efficacy. Clinical application of sensory-motor exercises may be particularly beneficial for children with elevated anxiety and stereotypy. Limitations include small sample size and brief intervention duration. Nevertheless, findings advocate these low-cost, non-pharmacological interventions as viable. Future research should explore long-term outcomes, larger samples, and functional gains in daily and social activities. Article Message Sensory-motor and perceptual-motor training reduce anxiety and stereotypical behaviors in children with ASD, with sensory-motor training demonstrating greater overall efficacy likely due to direct sensory regulation. Motor-based interventions represent accessible, cost-effective strategies that promote emotional regulation and adaptive behaviors. Integration of these methods into therapeutic and educational settings is encouraged. Further studies should examine sustained effects, larger cohorts, and multimodal approaches. Ethical Considerations Ethical standards were rigorously maintained. Guardians provided informed consent, with rights to withdraw at any time. Confidentiality was preserved, and ethical approval was obtained from the Sports Sciences Research Institute of Iran (Code: SSRI.REC-2505-2948). Authors’ Contributions Conceptualization: Ali Torabi, Mahmoud Sheikh Data Collection: Ali Torabi, Davood Homanian Data Analysis: Ali Torabi, Mahmoud Sheikh Manuscript Writing: Ali Torabi Review and Editing: Mahmoud Sheikh, Davood Homanian Funding Responsibility: Mahmoud Sheikh Literature Review: Ali Torabi Project Management: Mahmoud Sheikh Additional Contributions: Technical assistance by research staff during intervention setup Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Acknowledgments The authors thank all participating children and their families for their cooperation and trust, and the staff of NarMak Children’s Center for logistical support. This study was supported by the Faculty of Physical Education, University of Tehran. Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by deficits in social communication and restrictive, repetitive behaviors. Children with ASD often experience significant anxiety and stereotypical behaviors that compromise their quality of life, social integration, and educational progress. Anxiety manifests as heightened arousal, avoidance, and distress in response to overwhelming sensory stimuli. Stereotypical behaviors serve as self-regulatory mechanisms but hinder engagement in adaptive behaviors and learning. Recent studies highlight movement-based interventions targeting sensory-motor and perceptual-motor integration as promising treatments for ASD symptoms. Sensory-motor exercises improve integration of sensory inputs and motor outputs, facilitating nervous system regulation and emotional control. Perceptual-motor activities emphasize cognitive-motor coordination through planning, sequencing, and goal-directed actions, enhancing executive function and behavioral flexibility. However, comparative evidence on the effects of sensory-motor versus perceptual-motor training on anxiety and stereotypical behaviors remains limited. This study assessed the comparative effectiveness of these interventions in children aged 8–12 years diagnosed with ASD, providing empirical guidance for targeted therapeutic programs. Methods This quasi-experimental randomized controlled study involved three groups: sensory-motor intervention, perceptual-motor intervention, and control. Twenty-four children meeting DSM-5 criteria for ASD and aged 8–12 years were purposively sampled, excluding those with severe intellectual disability or physical impairments preventing participation. Participants were randomly assigned equally (n=8 per group). The sensory-motor group engaged in exercises enhancing sensory processing and motor coordination, including balance training, obstacle navigation, proprioceptive stimulation, and vestibular integration to improve body awareness and spatial movement. The perceptual-motor group performed tasks combining motor and cognitive elements, such as memory-based movement sequences, spatial orientation games, and rhythm-based exercises demanding executive control. Interventions lasted 12 weeks, with three 60-minute sessions weekly, delivered in small groups by trained pediatric motor and cognitive therapists. The control group continued routine care without motor-based activities. Outcomes measured pre- and post-intervention included anxiety via the Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale (SCAS) and stereotypical behaviors via the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R). Data were analyzed using MANCOVA controlling for baseline scores, with Tukey’s HSD for pairwise group comparisons. Results Post-test analyses revealed significant group effects on anxiety and stereotypy scores. Both intervention groups showed reduced anxiety and stereotypical behaviors versus controls, indicating motor-based training efficacy. Sensory-motor training yielded the largest improvements. Significant anxiety reductions were noted, particularly in subscales of uncertainty, fear, and arousal, suggesting sensory-motor integration plays a critical role in regulating emotional responses and physiological arousal in children with ASD. Regarding stereotypical behaviors, sensory-motor training again demonstrated prominent reductions, likely due to proprioceptive and vestibular activities providing organizing input to the nervous system, thereby diminishing self-stimulatory behaviors. The perceptual-motor group also improved on these measures but to a lesser degree, indicating that while cognitive-motor activities enhance attentional engagement, direct sensory regulation through sensory-motor training more effectively reduces distress-driven behaviors. The control group showed no significant changes, reinforcing the attribution of improvements to the interventions. Conclusion This study supports structured physical interventions for managing core ASD symptoms. Both sensory-motor and perceptual-motor exercises reduce anxiety and stereotypical behaviors; however, sensory-motor approaches offer superior efficacy. Clinical application of sensory-motor exercises may be particularly beneficial for children with elevated anxiety and stereotypy. Limitations include small sample size and brief intervention duration. Nevertheless, findings advocate these low-cost, non-pharmacological interventions as viable. Future research should explore long-term outcomes, larger samples, and functional gains in daily and social activities. Article Message Sensory-motor and perceptual-motor training reduce anxiety and stereotypical behaviors in children with ASD, with sensory-motor training demonstrating greater overall efficacy likely due to direct sensory regulation. Motor-based interventions represent accessible, cost-effective strategies that promote emotional regulation and adaptive behaviors. Integration of these methods into therapeutic and educational settings is encouraged. Further studies should examine sustained effects, larger cohorts, and multimodal approaches. Ethical Considerations Ethical standards were rigorously maintained. Guardians provided informed consent, with rights to withdraw at any time. Confidentiality was preserved, and ethical approval was obtained from the Sports Sciences Research Institute of Iran (Code: SSRI.REC-2505-2948). Authors’ Contributions Conceptualization: Ali Torabi, Mahmoud Sheikh Data Collection: Ali Torabi, Davood Homanian Data Analysis: Ali Torabi, Mahmoud Sheikh Manuscript Writing: Ali Torabi Review and Editing: Mahmoud Sheikh, Davood Homanian Funding Responsibility: Mahmoud Sheikh Literature Review: Ali Torabi Project Management: Mahmoud Sheikh Additional Contributions: Technical assistance by research staff during intervention setup Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Acknowledgments The authors thank all participating children and their families for their cooperation and trust, and the staff of NarMak Children’s Center for logistical support. This study was supported by the Faculty of Physical Education, University of Tehran.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4773_3eae62bba9ddf64f69d49dc48e2dd214.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 17 61 2025 10 23 An Investigation and Comparison of Health-Oriented Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior among Adults and the Elderly An Investigation and Comparison of Health-Oriented Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior among Adults and the Elderly 33 48 4844 10.22089/mbj.2025.16861.2165 FA Zahra Alam 1. Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Education, Roudehen Branch, Islamic Azad University, Roudehen, Iran 0000-0002-1709-5128 Sholah Khodadad Kashi Assistant Professor of Physical Education Department, K. N Tousi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran. 0000-0002-3778-0608 Ali Sadeghian Department of Physical Education, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran 0009-0009-7886-3600 Zahra Chaharbaghi Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Education, Islamshahr Branch, Islamic Azad University, Islamshahr, Iran 0000-0003-4767-1357 Amir Dana Associate Professor, Department of Physical Education, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran. 0000-0003-0191-7868 Journal Article 2024 06 17 <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;">Extended Abstract <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;">Background and Purpose <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;">Physical activity plays a vital role in maintaining overall health, well-being, and a healthy lifestyle (1). In adults, regular physical activity improves coordination, reduces the risk of falls, decreases social isolation, and strengthens social connections. The most effective strategy for health maintenance and prevention of non-communicable diseases—such as cardiovascular diseases, respiratory illnesses, diabetes, and cancers—is engaging in moderate to vigorous physical activity, commonly defined as health-oriented exercise (4). The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends for adults and older adults a minimum of 150 minutes per week of moderate-intensity aerobic activity or 75 minutes of vigorous aerobic activity, or an equivalent combination, alongside muscle-strengthening exercises on at least two days per week (5). Nevertheless, modern lifestyles have fostered sedentary behaviors evident across all age groups, from childhood to old age. Approximately one-third of the global population fails to meet WHO physical activity guidelines, with inactivity rates notably higher in high-income countries and among older populations (19). In Iran, studies have reported relatively low physical activity levels among adults and elderly individuals (21). However, most prior research has focused on general physical activity rather than health-oriented physical activity specifying moderate to vigorous intensities. This study aimed to investigate and compare health-oriented physical activity and sedentary behaviors among adults and elderly populations in Iran, with particular focus on gender-related differences. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;">Materials and Methods <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;">This applied research adopts a descriptive-comparative methodology. The sample comprised 768 participants—384 adults (192 men, 192 women) and 384 elderly (192 men, 192 women)—selected via convenience sampling from the cities of Bandar Torkaman, Gorgan, Aliabad Katul, Gonbad, and Kalaleh. Physical activity levels over the previous week were assessed using the short form of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), which captures multiple activity domains, including occupational tasks, transportation, household chores, and leisure activities, quantifying vigorous, moderate, and light intensity activity. Individual activity levels were initially quantified using metabolic equivalent (MET) values, then classified into vigorous, moderate, or light categories accordingly. Descriptive statistics including mean, standard deviation, frequency, and percentage were used to characterize variables. Normality was evaluated with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. One-sample t-tests assessed differences in health-oriented physical activity relative to WHO standards. Independent t-tests evaluated gender differences in demographic variables, and Chi-square tests analyzed gender differences in physical activity categories. The significance threshold was set at 0.05. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;"> <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;">Findings <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;">As shown in Table 1, among adults, 20% of men and 14% of women engaged in vigorous physical activity, with men significantly more active than women (p<0.001). For moderate activity, 28% of men and 21% of women participated, again with males significantly exceeding females (p<0.001). Conversely, 52% of men and 65% of women engaged in light physical activity, with females significantly more active in this intensity (p<0.001). Among the elderly, only 6% of men and 4% of women performed vigorous activity, with no significant gender difference detected (p>0.05). Moderate activity involved 39% of men and 29% of women, with men significantly more active (p<0.001). Light physical activity was reported by 55% of men and 67% of women, with females engaging significantly more (p<0.001). Comparisons between age groups revealed that adults exhibited significantly higher levels of vigorous (t=25.473, p<0.001), moderate (t=19.257, p<0.001), and light (t=7.660, p<0.001) physical activity relative to elderly individuals. Additionally, adults demonstrated significantly lower sedentary durations than the elderly population (t=38.143, p<0.001). <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;"> <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conclusion <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Less than half of adults and elderly individuals engage in health-oriented physical activity, indicating a generally low level of participation within Golestan Province. This finding is consistent with prior studies (17,25) reporting limited engagement in health-focused exercise among these populations. One possible explanation is that adulthood and aging involve substantially increased life responsibilities relative to childhood, imposing greater cognitive demands that constrain time available for leisure activities, including exercise (13,18). Additional barriers to participation among adults and elderly include time limitations due to work or educational commitments, lack of motivation, age-related beliefs such as "I am too old," and the presence of injuries or chronic illnesses. Physical ailments that cause discomfort during movement—such as obesity, back pain, or chronic fatigue—also represent significant impediments to regular physical activity. Moreover, a pronounced gender disparity exists, with men demonstrating higher participation levels in health-oriented physical activities than women. This observation aligns with earlier research (19,23) showing consistently greater male involvement in physical activity. Factors underlying lower female participation may include inadequate access to women’s sports facilities, socio-cultural constraints, and safety concerns related to engaging in physical activities in public spaces (29). <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Article Message <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This study assessed health-oriented physical activity among adults and elderly populations in Golestan Province, Iran, revealing a notable deficiency, with fewer than half meeting recommended activity standards. Adults exhibit higher activity levels compared to the elderly, and men consistently outperform women in moderate and vigorous physical activity. These findings underscore the urgent necessity for targeted interventions to promote health-oriented physical activity, particularly focusing on increasing participation among elderly individuals and women, to combat sedentary lifestyles and improve public health outcomes in the region. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ethical Considerations <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The study was conducted in full compliance with applicable research ethics standards. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Authors’ Contributions <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conceptualization: Zahra Alam, Zahra Chaharbaghi <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Data Collection: Zahra Chaharbaghi, Ali Sadeghian, Sholeh Khodadad Kashi <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Data Analysis: Amir Dana, Zahra Chaharbaghi <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Manuscript Writing: Sholeh Khodadad Kashi, Zahra Alam, Zahra Chaharbaghi <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Review and Editing: Amir Dana, Zahra Alam <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Literature Review: Sholeh Khodadad Kashi, Ali Sadeghian <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Project Management: Zahra Chaharbaghi <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conflicts of Interest <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding this article. <span style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Acknowledgments <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The authors sincerely thank all participants for their invaluable contributions to this research. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;">Extended Abstract <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;">Background and Purpose <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;">Physical activity plays a vital role in maintaining overall health, well-being, and a healthy lifestyle (1). In adults, regular physical activity improves coordination, reduces the risk of falls, decreases social isolation, and strengthens social connections. The most effective strategy for health maintenance and prevention of non-communicable diseases—such as cardiovascular diseases, respiratory illnesses, diabetes, and cancers—is engaging in moderate to vigorous physical activity, commonly defined as health-oriented exercise (4). The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends for adults and older adults a minimum of 150 minutes per week of moderate-intensity aerobic activity or 75 minutes of vigorous aerobic activity, or an equivalent combination, alongside muscle-strengthening exercises on at least two days per week (5). Nevertheless, modern lifestyles have fostered sedentary behaviors evident across all age groups, from childhood to old age. Approximately one-third of the global population fails to meet WHO physical activity guidelines, with inactivity rates notably higher in high-income countries and among older populations (19). In Iran, studies have reported relatively low physical activity levels among adults and elderly individuals (21). However, most prior research has focused on general physical activity rather than health-oriented physical activity specifying moderate to vigorous intensities. This study aimed to investigate and compare health-oriented physical activity and sedentary behaviors among adults and elderly populations in Iran, with particular focus on gender-related differences. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;">Materials and Methods <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;">This applied research adopts a descriptive-comparative methodology. The sample comprised 768 participants—384 adults (192 men, 192 women) and 384 elderly (192 men, 192 women)—selected via convenience sampling from the cities of Bandar Torkaman, Gorgan, Aliabad Katul, Gonbad, and Kalaleh. Physical activity levels over the previous week were assessed using the short form of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), which captures multiple activity domains, including occupational tasks, transportation, household chores, and leisure activities, quantifying vigorous, moderate, and light intensity activity. Individual activity levels were initially quantified using metabolic equivalent (MET) values, then classified into vigorous, moderate, or light categories accordingly. Descriptive statistics including mean, standard deviation, frequency, and percentage were used to characterize variables. Normality was evaluated with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. One-sample t-tests assessed differences in health-oriented physical activity relative to WHO standards. Independent t-tests evaluated gender differences in demographic variables, and Chi-square tests analyzed gender differences in physical activity categories. The significance threshold was set at 0.05. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;"> <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;">Findings <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;">As shown in Table 1, among adults, 20% of men and 14% of women engaged in vigorous physical activity, with men significantly more active than women (p<0.001). For moderate activity, 28% of men and 21% of women participated, again with males significantly exceeding females (p<0.001). Conversely, 52% of men and 65% of women engaged in light physical activity, with females significantly more active in this intensity (p<0.001). Among the elderly, only 6% of men and 4% of women performed vigorous activity, with no significant gender difference detected (p>0.05). Moderate activity involved 39% of men and 29% of women, with men significantly more active (p<0.001). Light physical activity was reported by 55% of men and 67% of women, with females engaging significantly more (p<0.001). Comparisons between age groups revealed that adults exhibited significantly higher levels of vigorous (t=25.473, p<0.001), moderate (t=19.257, p<0.001), and light (t=7.660, p<0.001) physical activity relative to elderly individuals. Additionally, adults demonstrated significantly lower sedentary durations than the elderly population (t=38.143, p<0.001). <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;"> <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conclusion <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Less than half of adults and elderly individuals engage in health-oriented physical activity, indicating a generally low level of participation within Golestan Province. This finding is consistent with prior studies (17,25) reporting limited engagement in health-focused exercise among these populations. One possible explanation is that adulthood and aging involve substantially increased life responsibilities relative to childhood, imposing greater cognitive demands that constrain time available for leisure activities, including exercise (13,18). Additional barriers to participation among adults and elderly include time limitations due to work or educational commitments, lack of motivation, age-related beliefs such as "I am too old," and the presence of injuries or chronic illnesses. Physical ailments that cause discomfort during movement—such as obesity, back pain, or chronic fatigue—also represent significant impediments to regular physical activity. Moreover, a pronounced gender disparity exists, with men demonstrating higher participation levels in health-oriented physical activities than women. This observation aligns with earlier research (19,23) showing consistently greater male involvement in physical activity. Factors underlying lower female participation may include inadequate access to women’s sports facilities, socio-cultural constraints, and safety concerns related to engaging in physical activities in public spaces (29). <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Article Message <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This study assessed health-oriented physical activity among adults and elderly populations in Golestan Province, Iran, revealing a notable deficiency, with fewer than half meeting recommended activity standards. Adults exhibit higher activity levels compared to the elderly, and men consistently outperform women in moderate and vigorous physical activity. These findings underscore the urgent necessity for targeted interventions to promote health-oriented physical activity, particularly focusing on increasing participation among elderly individuals and women, to combat sedentary lifestyles and improve public health outcomes in the region. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ethical Considerations <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The study was conducted in full compliance with applicable research ethics standards. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Authors’ Contributions <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conceptualization: Zahra Alam, Zahra Chaharbaghi <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Data Collection: Zahra Chaharbaghi, Ali Sadeghian, Sholeh Khodadad Kashi <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Data Analysis: Amir Dana, Zahra Chaharbaghi <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Manuscript Writing: Sholeh Khodadad Kashi, Zahra Alam, Zahra Chaharbaghi <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Review and Editing: Amir Dana, Zahra Alam <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Literature Review: Sholeh Khodadad Kashi, Ali Sadeghian <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Project Management: Zahra Chaharbaghi <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conflicts of Interest <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding this article. <span style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Acknowledgments <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The authors sincerely thank all participants for their invaluable contributions to this research. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4844_e6cc48e3a8db9b618592a86a57960164.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 17 61 2025 10 23 Effect of Physical and Mental Practice on Variability of Movement Coordination and Smoothness Effect of Physical and Mental Practice on Variability of Movement Coordination and Smoothness 49 66 3992 10.22089/mbj.2023.13689.2059 FA Davoud Fazeli Department of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Education and Psychology, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran 0000-0001-6716-8156 Hamidreza Taheri Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran 0000-0002-0878-604X Alireza Saberi Kakhki Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran 0000-0002-3066-4858 Fatemeh Shakeri Chenari Department of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Education and Psychology, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran 0009-0003-9960-7637 Journal Article 2022 10 26 <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Extended Abstract <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Background and Purpose <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The positive effect of mental practice on skill learning is considered a piece of evidence for similar underlying mechanisms of physical and mental practice. According to Newell’s model of motor learning, at the first stage of learning, the physical practice would enhance coordination and in the second stage practice would enhance control of that coordination pattern. In line with this argument, it has been shown that movement variability would reduce as a result of skill enhancement. Also, research showed that movement jerk would reduce as a result of skill improvement. According to the abovementioned argument, if the underlying mechanisms of mental and physical practice are similar, then mental practice should have a similar effect on movement variability and movement jerk. As this argument was not considered widely in previous studies, this study aimed to compare the effect of physical and mental practice on movement variability and movement jerk. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Methods <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">30 males (mean = 25 ± 4.3) participated in this study according to a convenience sampling method. Participants were divided into three different groups (physical, mental, and control) according to their pre-test scores (10 trials from 244 cm away from the target). Also, before participating in the practice sessions, all participants completed the movement imagery questionnaire-revised. Then, participants practiced a golf putting task for 6 consecutive days (10 blocks—18 trials each). The physical practice group performed 180 trials each day (10 blocks) from 244 cm away from the target. The mental practice group completed the mental putting task while standing on the start point holding the putter, without any observable movement. The control group did not practice and just completed the pre- and retention tests. A retention test (similar to the pre-test) was performed seven days from the last practice session (10 trials from 244 cm from the target). Movement kinematics were recorded using a SIMI motion capture system to calculate the coordination and smoothness indexes. Putting accuracy (distance from the edge of the landed ball from the edge of the target), variability of coordination pattern, and movement jerk were calculated as the dependent variables. The imagery data were analyzed using a One-way ANOVA. All other data were analyzed using a mixed ANOVA model 3 (group; physical, mental, and control) × 2 (test; pre- and post-tests) with the repeated measures on the last factor. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Results <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Results of One-way ANOVA for imagery data showed no significant difference between groups, F < 1. For the accuracy data, results showed no significant main effect of group, F (2, 27) = 0.98, p = 0.38, η²p = 0.068. However, significant main effects for test, F (1, 27) = 10.21, p = 0.004, η²p = 0.27, and the interaction of group with test, F (2, 27) = 13.20, p < 0.001, η²p = 0.49, were found. The results of post-hoc test for the interaction effect showed that there was no significant difference between groups during the pre-test, all p > 0.05. However, the physical practice showed higher accuracy than the imagery practice group during the post-test, p < 0.05. Also, accuracy improvements were observed for physical and imagery groups from pre to post-test, all p < 0.05; no such effect was observed for the control group, p > 0.05. Results for variability of coordination pattern showed no significant main effect for group, F (2, 27) = 1.08, p = 0.35, η²p = 0.07. However, significant effects were observed for test, F (1, 27) = 63.63, p < 0.001, η²p = 0.7, and interaction of group × test, F (2, 27) = 15.38, p < 0.001, η²p = 0.53. Post-hoc test for the interaction effect showed that there was no significant difference between groups during the pre-test, all p > 0.05. Results showed that during the retention test physical and imagery groups significantly outperformed the control group, all p < 0.05. The difference between the physical and imagery groups was not significant during the retention test, p > 0.05. Also, results showed improvement from pre-test to retention test for physical and imagery groups, all p < 0.05; such effect was not observed for the control group, p > 0.05. Results of ANOVA for the jerk measure showed significant main effects for group, F (2, 27) = 5.68, p = 0.009, η²p = 0.29, and test, F (1, 27) = 33.78, p < 0.001, η²p = 0.55. Also, the interaction effect of group × test was significant, F (2, 27) = 15.26, p < 0.001, η²p = 0.53. Results of post-hoc test for the interaction showed no significant difference between groups during the pre-test, all p > 0.05. However, results showed that the physical group had significantly lower movement jerk than the imagery and control groups, all p < 0.05. Also, results showed improvement from pre-test to retention test for physical and imagery groups, all p < 0.05; like other measures, such effect was not observed for control group, all p > 0.05. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conclusion <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Although mental practice improved movement accuracy, this improvement was not equal to or more than improvements by physical practice. These findings were considered as evidence for different underlying mechanisms for physical and mental practice (8,9,10). It is argued that internal models would not update during motor imagery (11), and as a result, learning may suffer. In contrast to the previous study (12), this study showed that mental practice would improve the variability of movement coordination similar to physical practice. In the previous study, a discrete measure of variability was used which has some limitations to show differences between groups (13,14); however, in this study a continuous measure was used. Also, in the previous study participants just performed 18 trials, in this study participants performed 1080 practice trials. The difference in the amount of practice could serve as a possible reason for contradicting findings. Besides, results showed that motor imagery practice improved movement smoothness but was lower than physical practice. The lack of real visual feedback could be the possible reason for this finding (8). <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Article Message <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The results of this study showed that mental practice, like physical practice, leads to learning the golf stroke. The results also indicated that mental practice improves movement smoothness; however, this improvement was not as significant as that achieved through physical practice. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ethical Considerations <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This study was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Shiraz University. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Authors’ Contributions <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conceptualization: Davoud Fazeli, Hamidreza Taheri, Alireza Saberi Kakhki <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Data Collection: Davoud Fazeli <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Data Analysis: Davoud Fazeli, Hamidreza Taheri, Alireza Saberi Kakhki, Fatemeh Shakeri Chenari <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Manuscript Writing: Davoud Fazeli, Hamidreza Taheri, Alireza Saberi Kakhki, Fatemeh Shakeri Chenari <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Review and Editing: Davoud Fazeli, Hamidreza Taheri, Alireza Saberi Kakhki, Fatemeh Shakeri Chenari <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Responsible for funding: No funding. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Literature Review: Davoud Fazeli, Hamidreza Taheri, Alireza Saberi Kakhki, Fatemeh Shakeri Chenari <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Project Manager: Davoud Fazeli <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Any other Contributions: No other contributions <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conflict of Interest <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The author(s) declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article. <span dir="RTL" lang="FA" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Acknowledgments <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The author(s) would like to express their sincere gratitude to the participants who made this study possible. <span lang="FA" style="font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; font-family: 'B Nazanin'; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Extended Abstract <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Background and Purpose <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The positive effect of mental practice on skill learning is considered a piece of evidence for similar underlying mechanisms of physical and mental practice. According to Newell’s model of motor learning, at the first stage of learning, the physical practice would enhance coordination and in the second stage practice would enhance control of that coordination pattern. In line with this argument, it has been shown that movement variability would reduce as a result of skill enhancement. Also, research showed that movement jerk would reduce as a result of skill improvement. According to the abovementioned argument, if the underlying mechanisms of mental and physical practice are similar, then mental practice should have a similar effect on movement variability and movement jerk. As this argument was not considered widely in previous studies, this study aimed to compare the effect of physical and mental practice on movement variability and movement jerk. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Methods <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">30 males (mean = 25 ± 4.3) participated in this study according to a convenience sampling method. Participants were divided into three different groups (physical, mental, and control) according to their pre-test scores (10 trials from 244 cm away from the target). Also, before participating in the practice sessions, all participants completed the movement imagery questionnaire-revised. Then, participants practiced a golf putting task for 6 consecutive days (10 blocks—18 trials each). The physical practice group performed 180 trials each day (10 blocks) from 244 cm away from the target. The mental practice group completed the mental putting task while standing on the start point holding the putter, without any observable movement. The control group did not practice and just completed the pre- and retention tests. A retention test (similar to the pre-test) was performed seven days from the last practice session (10 trials from 244 cm from the target). Movement kinematics were recorded using a SIMI motion capture system to calculate the coordination and smoothness indexes. Putting accuracy (distance from the edge of the landed ball from the edge of the target), variability of coordination pattern, and movement jerk were calculated as the dependent variables. The imagery data were analyzed using a One-way ANOVA. All other data were analyzed using a mixed ANOVA model 3 (group; physical, mental, and control) × 2 (test; pre- and post-tests) with the repeated measures on the last factor. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Results <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Results of One-way ANOVA for imagery data showed no significant difference between groups, F < 1. For the accuracy data, results showed no significant main effect of group, F (2, 27) = 0.98, p = 0.38, η²p = 0.068. However, significant main effects for test, F (1, 27) = 10.21, p = 0.004, η²p = 0.27, and the interaction of group with test, F (2, 27) = 13.20, p < 0.001, η²p = 0.49, were found. The results of post-hoc test for the interaction effect showed that there was no significant difference between groups during the pre-test, all p > 0.05. However, the physical practice showed higher accuracy than the imagery practice group during the post-test, p < 0.05. Also, accuracy improvements were observed for physical and imagery groups from pre to post-test, all p < 0.05; no such effect was observed for the control group, p > 0.05. Results for variability of coordination pattern showed no significant main effect for group, F (2, 27) = 1.08, p = 0.35, η²p = 0.07. However, significant effects were observed for test, F (1, 27) = 63.63, p < 0.001, η²p = 0.7, and interaction of group × test, F (2, 27) = 15.38, p < 0.001, η²p = 0.53. Post-hoc test for the interaction effect showed that there was no significant difference between groups during the pre-test, all p > 0.05. Results showed that during the retention test physical and imagery groups significantly outperformed the control group, all p < 0.05. The difference between the physical and imagery groups was not significant during the retention test, p > 0.05. Also, results showed improvement from pre-test to retention test for physical and imagery groups, all p < 0.05; such effect was not observed for the control group, p > 0.05. Results of ANOVA for the jerk measure showed significant main effects for group, F (2, 27) = 5.68, p = 0.009, η²p = 0.29, and test, F (1, 27) = 33.78, p < 0.001, η²p = 0.55. Also, the interaction effect of group × test was significant, F (2, 27) = 15.26, p < 0.001, η²p = 0.53. Results of post-hoc test for the interaction showed no significant difference between groups during the pre-test, all p > 0.05. However, results showed that the physical group had significantly lower movement jerk than the imagery and control groups, all p < 0.05. Also, results showed improvement from pre-test to retention test for physical and imagery groups, all p < 0.05; like other measures, such effect was not observed for control group, all p > 0.05. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conclusion <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Although mental practice improved movement accuracy, this improvement was not equal to or more than improvements by physical practice. These findings were considered as evidence for different underlying mechanisms for physical and mental practice (8,9,10). It is argued that internal models would not update during motor imagery (11), and as a result, learning may suffer. In contrast to the previous study (12), this study showed that mental practice would improve the variability of movement coordination similar to physical practice. In the previous study, a discrete measure of variability was used which has some limitations to show differences between groups (13,14); however, in this study a continuous measure was used. Also, in the previous study participants just performed 18 trials, in this study participants performed 1080 practice trials. The difference in the amount of practice could serve as a possible reason for contradicting findings. Besides, results showed that motor imagery practice improved movement smoothness but was lower than physical practice. The lack of real visual feedback could be the possible reason for this finding (8). <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Article Message <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The results of this study showed that mental practice, like physical practice, leads to learning the golf stroke. The results also indicated that mental practice improves movement smoothness; however, this improvement was not as significant as that achieved through physical practice. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ethical Considerations <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This study was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Shiraz University. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Authors’ Contributions <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conceptualization: Davoud Fazeli, Hamidreza Taheri, Alireza Saberi Kakhki <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Data Collection: Davoud Fazeli <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Data Analysis: Davoud Fazeli, Hamidreza Taheri, Alireza Saberi Kakhki, Fatemeh Shakeri Chenari <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Manuscript Writing: Davoud Fazeli, Hamidreza Taheri, Alireza Saberi Kakhki, Fatemeh Shakeri Chenari <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Review and Editing: Davoud Fazeli, Hamidreza Taheri, Alireza Saberi Kakhki, Fatemeh Shakeri Chenari <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Responsible for funding: No funding. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Literature Review: Davoud Fazeli, Hamidreza Taheri, Alireza Saberi Kakhki, Fatemeh Shakeri Chenari <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Project Manager: Davoud Fazeli <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Any other Contributions: No other contributions <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conflict of Interest <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The author(s) declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article. <span dir="RTL" lang="FA" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Acknowledgments <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The author(s) would like to express their sincere gratitude to the participants who made this study possible. <span lang="FA" style="font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; font-family: 'B Nazanin'; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_3992_0de5d1a081a3095d62b416e44e055e7a.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 17 61 2025 10 23 The Effect of Purposeful Play and Deliberated Practice on Performance of Selected Fundamental Motor Skills of Children The Effect of Purposeful Play and Deliberated Practice on Performance of Selected Fundamental Motor Skills of Children 67 86 4627 10.22089/mbj.2025.16795.2160 FA Daryoush Khajavi Department of Motor Behavior and Sport Psychology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Arak, Arak, Iran 0000-0001-5778-5089 Mohammad Mahmoudi Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences in Sport, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran 0009-0008-4656-4465 Journal Article 2024 05 26 <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Extended Abstract <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Background and Purpose <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Basic movements encompass essential motor skills, including locomotion, manipulation, and stable visible actions. Through the refinement and combination of these fundamental movement patterns, complex sports skills are developed. Extensive evidence indicates that motor experiences in physical activities influence numerous facets of both physical and cognitive development. Despite the clear distinction between deliberate practice and purposeful play, there is a notable lack of research investigating their comparative effects on the performance of basic motor skills—specifically locomotion and ball skills—in children aged 7 to 10 years. Consequently, this study aimed to examine the impact of purposeful play versus deliberate practice on the fundamental motor skill performance of boys within this age group. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Methods <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The study population consisted of all male students aged 7 to 10 years residing in Arak city. Based on power analysis conducted using G*Power software (version 3.1.9.2), the minimum required sample size was calculated to be 39 (13 participants per group), assuming a significance level of 0.05, statistical power of 95%, and an effect size of 0.3 derived from prior related studies. Employing a semi-experimental pre-test/post-test design with a four-week follow-up, 45 male students were randomly selected and randomly assigned into three groups of 15 each: deliberate play, deliberate practice, and control. Inclusion criteria required normal vision (assessed via the Snellen Vision Scale), age between 7 and 10 years, physical health status confirmed by the Health and Physical Activity Questionnaire, absence of injuries or illnesses affecting motor function, and parental consent. Basic motor skills were assessed at baseline using the Ulrich Test of Motor Development–Third Edition (Ulrich-3). During the intervention phase, participants engaged in movement and ball skill training modeled on the Ulrich Motor Development Test 3 framework, applying either deliberate play or deliberate practice protocols over nine weeks (two 60-minute sessions per week). Training sessions were conducted in a dedicated facility equipped with age-appropriate play materials designed to foster skill acquisition. Post-intervention assessments and a four-week follow-up evaluation involved re-administration of the Ulrich-3 test. Hypotheses were tested using repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to evaluate the effects of intervention type across measurement time points. Statistical analyses were performed with SPSS version 22, setting the alpha level for significance at 0.05. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Descriptive analysis of the participants’ demographic characteristics indicated no significant differences among groups in age, height, or weight, confirming group homogeneity for these variables. The Shapiro-Wilk test results showed that the significance levels for all variables across all groups exceeded 0.05, confirming normal data distribution with 95% confidence. Additionally, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) at the pre-test stage revealed no significant differences in either locomotion or ball skills among the groups, further supporting baseline equivalence. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The first assumption of the repeated measures analysis—equality of covariance matrices—was met, as indicated by the non-significant Box’s M test (P=0.203). The second assumption, compound symmetry, was confirmed by the non-significance of Mauchly’s test of sphericity (P=0.673), justifying the use of related F indices adjusted for sphericity. Levene’s test confirmed homogeneity of error variances before assessing between-group effects, with non-significant results (P=0.405 pre-test, P=0.110 post-test, P=0.295 follow-up). <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The results of the repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) demonstrated significant main effects of measurement time (η²=0.604, P=0.001, F=63.97), group (η²=0.756, P=0.001, F=65.02), and the interaction between measurement time and group (η²=0.521, P=0.001, F=22.87). These findings indicate significant changes over time, differences between groups, and differing temporal patterns among groups. Specifically, purposeful play significantly enhanced locomotion and ball skills in boys aged 7 to 10, with marked improvements observed from pre-test to post-test and maintained at follow-up (P<0.05). Furthermore, participants engaged in deliberate play exhibited significantly superior locomotion and ball skills compared to those in the deliberate practice group (P<0.05). <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conclusion <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">This study demonstrates that purposeful play markedly improves locomotion and ball skills in children aged 7 to 10 years, with skill levels significantly increasing from baseline through post-intervention and follow-up assessments. Purposeful play can thus be conceptualized as an intentional sports activity that fosters general cognitive and physiological development while providing a rich environment conducive to sports skill acquisition. Similarly, deliberate practice also positively impacts locomotion and ball skills in this age group, resulting in significant performance gains. Notably, purposeful play yielded greater improvements than deliberate practice, corroborating findings by Fahimi and Qolehaki. These results support the view that purposeful play—serving as an intentional exercise modality—can develop foundational cognitive and physiological skills and effectively complement or partially substitute for deliberate practice. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">However, contrasting evidence from Rezaei et al. revealed that speed and agility improved more significantly in the deliberate practice group during mid- and post-test assessments, whereas certain subscales favored the purposeful play group. Overall, this investigation aligns with extant literature underscoring the importance of both purposeful play and deliberate practice in enhancing locomotion and ball skills during childhood. Based on these findings, coaches and educators specializing in children’s physical activity are encouraged to integrate both purposeful play and deliberate practice into training regimens to optimally develop fundamental motor skills in boys aged 7 to 10 years. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Keywords: Deliberate Play, Deliberate Practice, Ball Skills, Movement Skills, Children. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Article Message <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Consistent with prior research in this field, this study emphasizes that purposeful play significantly enhances locomotion and ball skills in boys aged 7 to 10 years. This underscores the essential role of purposeful play and deliberate practice in the development and improvement of fundamental motor skills during childhood. Coaches and children’s physical education specialists should incorporate these methodologies to effectively advance basic movement competencies in this demographic. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Ethical Considerations <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">All research ethical guidelines were observed. The study received approval from the Department of Motor Behavior and Sport Psychology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Arak. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Authors’ Contributions <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conceptualization: First author (supervisor) 50%, Second author (student) 50% <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Data Collection: First author 15%, Second author 85% <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Data Analysis: First author 30%, Second author 70% <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Manuscript Writing: First author 50%, Second author 50% <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Review and Editing: First author 90%, Second author 10% <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Funding: None <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Literature Review: First author 50%, Second author 50% <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Project Management: First author 90%, Second author 10% <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Other Contributions: None <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conflict of Interest <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The authors declare no conflicts of interest. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Acknowledgments <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The authors gratefully acknowledge all individuals who supported this research. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Extended Abstract <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Background and Purpose <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Basic movements encompass essential motor skills, including locomotion, manipulation, and stable visible actions. Through the refinement and combination of these fundamental movement patterns, complex sports skills are developed. Extensive evidence indicates that motor experiences in physical activities influence numerous facets of both physical and cognitive development. Despite the clear distinction between deliberate practice and purposeful play, there is a notable lack of research investigating their comparative effects on the performance of basic motor skills—specifically locomotion and ball skills—in children aged 7 to 10 years. Consequently, this study aimed to examine the impact of purposeful play versus deliberate practice on the fundamental motor skill performance of boys within this age group. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Methods <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The study population consisted of all male students aged 7 to 10 years residing in Arak city. Based on power analysis conducted using G*Power software (version 3.1.9.2), the minimum required sample size was calculated to be 39 (13 participants per group), assuming a significance level of 0.05, statistical power of 95%, and an effect size of 0.3 derived from prior related studies. Employing a semi-experimental pre-test/post-test design with a four-week follow-up, 45 male students were randomly selected and randomly assigned into three groups of 15 each: deliberate play, deliberate practice, and control. Inclusion criteria required normal vision (assessed via the Snellen Vision Scale), age between 7 and 10 years, physical health status confirmed by the Health and Physical Activity Questionnaire, absence of injuries or illnesses affecting motor function, and parental consent. Basic motor skills were assessed at baseline using the Ulrich Test of Motor Development–Third Edition (Ulrich-3). During the intervention phase, participants engaged in movement and ball skill training modeled on the Ulrich Motor Development Test 3 framework, applying either deliberate play or deliberate practice protocols over nine weeks (two 60-minute sessions per week). Training sessions were conducted in a dedicated facility equipped with age-appropriate play materials designed to foster skill acquisition. Post-intervention assessments and a four-week follow-up evaluation involved re-administration of the Ulrich-3 test. Hypotheses were tested using repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to evaluate the effects of intervention type across measurement time points. Statistical analyses were performed with SPSS version 22, setting the alpha level for significance at 0.05. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Descriptive analysis of the participants’ demographic characteristics indicated no significant differences among groups in age, height, or weight, confirming group homogeneity for these variables. The Shapiro-Wilk test results showed that the significance levels for all variables across all groups exceeded 0.05, confirming normal data distribution with 95% confidence. Additionally, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) at the pre-test stage revealed no significant differences in either locomotion or ball skills among the groups, further supporting baseline equivalence. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The first assumption of the repeated measures analysis—equality of covariance matrices—was met, as indicated by the non-significant Box’s M test (P=0.203). The second assumption, compound symmetry, was confirmed by the non-significance of Mauchly’s test of sphericity (P=0.673), justifying the use of related F indices adjusted for sphericity. Levene’s test confirmed homogeneity of error variances before assessing between-group effects, with non-significant results (P=0.405 pre-test, P=0.110 post-test, P=0.295 follow-up). <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The results of the repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) demonstrated significant main effects of measurement time (η²=0.604, P=0.001, F=63.97), group (η²=0.756, P=0.001, F=65.02), and the interaction between measurement time and group (η²=0.521, P=0.001, F=22.87). These findings indicate significant changes over time, differences between groups, and differing temporal patterns among groups. Specifically, purposeful play significantly enhanced locomotion and ball skills in boys aged 7 to 10, with marked improvements observed from pre-test to post-test and maintained at follow-up (P<0.05). Furthermore, participants engaged in deliberate play exhibited significantly superior locomotion and ball skills compared to those in the deliberate practice group (P<0.05). <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conclusion <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">This study demonstrates that purposeful play markedly improves locomotion and ball skills in children aged 7 to 10 years, with skill levels significantly increasing from baseline through post-intervention and follow-up assessments. Purposeful play can thus be conceptualized as an intentional sports activity that fosters general cognitive and physiological development while providing a rich environment conducive to sports skill acquisition. Similarly, deliberate practice also positively impacts locomotion and ball skills in this age group, resulting in significant performance gains. Notably, purposeful play yielded greater improvements than deliberate practice, corroborating findings by Fahimi and Qolehaki. These results support the view that purposeful play—serving as an intentional exercise modality—can develop foundational cognitive and physiological skills and effectively complement or partially substitute for deliberate practice. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">However, contrasting evidence from Rezaei et al. revealed that speed and agility improved more significantly in the deliberate practice group during mid- and post-test assessments, whereas certain subscales favored the purposeful play group. Overall, this investigation aligns with extant literature underscoring the importance of both purposeful play and deliberate practice in enhancing locomotion and ball skills during childhood. Based on these findings, coaches and educators specializing in children’s physical activity are encouraged to integrate both purposeful play and deliberate practice into training regimens to optimally develop fundamental motor skills in boys aged 7 to 10 years. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Keywords: Deliberate Play, Deliberate Practice, Ball Skills, Movement Skills, Children. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Article Message <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Consistent with prior research in this field, this study emphasizes that purposeful play significantly enhances locomotion and ball skills in boys aged 7 to 10 years. This underscores the essential role of purposeful play and deliberate practice in the development and improvement of fundamental motor skills during childhood. Coaches and children’s physical education specialists should incorporate these methodologies to effectively advance basic movement competencies in this demographic. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Ethical Considerations <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">All research ethical guidelines were observed. The study received approval from the Department of Motor Behavior and Sport Psychology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Arak. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Authors’ Contributions <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conceptualization: First author (supervisor) 50%, Second author (student) 50% <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Data Collection: First author 15%, Second author 85% <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Data Analysis: First author 30%, Second author 70% <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Manuscript Writing: First author 50%, Second author 50% <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Review and Editing: First author 90%, Second author 10% <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Funding: None <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Literature Review: First author 50%, Second author 50% <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Project Management: First author 90%, Second author 10% <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Other Contributions: None <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Conflict of Interest <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The authors declare no conflicts of interest. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Acknowledgments <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The authors gratefully acknowledge all individuals who supported this research. <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4627_0d1a9651497a38d8b1c3871c84528bd4.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 17 61 2025 10 23 Coaches’ Use of Attentional Focus Instructions in Tennis Training: A Field-Based Analysis Coaches’ Use of Attentional Focus Instructions in Tennis Training: A Field-Based Analysis 87 104 4680 10.22089/mbj.2025.17559.2197 FA Hamid Salehi Associate Professor of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran 0000-0002-5921-6602 Zahra Khalaji Postdoctoral Researcher in Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran 0000-0002-7572-7947 Zahra Mohammadi M.A. in Sport Psychology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran Journal Article 2024 12 24 Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Although substantial empirical evidence underscores the benefits of external focus instructions in enhancing motor performance and learning, recent findings indicate many coaches still predominantly employ internal focus cues during training sessions. This inconsistency may stem from athletes’ familiarity with internal instructions and coaches’ tendency to reinforce what they perceive as athletes’ preferred instructional style. While laboratory research on attentional focus has advanced considerably, there remains a significant gap in understanding coaches’ natural instructional behaviors in authentic sporting environments. Moreover, the variation in instructional content relative to athletes’ skill levels remains insufficiently explored, particularly in technically demanding sports such as tennis. Given that vague or internally directed cues—for example, "bend your knees"—may impair performance, it is essential to analyze the actual language coaches use during practice. This study investigated the frequency and nature of attentional focus cues—categorized as internal, external, and holistic—used by tennis coaches and examined whether these patterns differ among beginner, skilled, and advanced players. The findings aim to enrich coach education and foster more effective communication strategies. Methods This observational study was conducted within a naturalistic tennis training context to assess the frequency and types of attentional focus instructions provided to players of varying skill levels. The sample comprised 36 tennis players (both male and female; mean age 23.08 ± 1.89 years) and five coaches (mean age 29.81 ± 2.93 years) holding level-one coaching certifications and averaging 6.83 ± 1.61 years of coaching experience. Players were categorized as beginner (n=12), intermediate (n=18), and advanced (n=6) based on coaches’ evaluations and the International Tennis Number (ITN) ranking system. After obtaining written informed consent, coaches wore wireless lapel microphones connected to smartphones, which recorded all verbal interactions during standard outdoor training sessions. Coaches were instructed to maintain their usual instructional behaviors without alteration. To minimize participant bias, the study’s specific aims were withheld. Across summer 2023, recordings were collected from 47 training sessions (mean duration 13.45 ± 3.45 minutes). Audio data were transcribed verbatim and subjected to a structured three-step coding process: statements were first divided into those related or unrelated to motor performance; motor-related statements were then labeled as instructional or non-instructional; finally, instructional statements were categorized by attentional focus type—internal focus of attention (IFoA), external focus of attention (EFoA), holistic/general focus of attention (HFoA), or neutral focus of attention (NFoA). The primary researcher performed coding, with validation by two movement science experts utilizing a critical friend method to ensure reliability. Relative frequencies were calculated to adjust for session length variations. Mixed-effects models analyzed differences in attentional focus usage across skill levels, treating player skill and instruction type as fixed effects and coach identity as a random effect. Results From a total of 15,529 coach-player statements, 13,455 (86.64%) related to motor performance. Of these, 8,535 were instructional, subdivided into attentional focus instructions (6,143; 71.97%) and non-attentional instructions (2,392; 28.03%). Within attentional cues, external focus (EFoA) occurred most frequently (2,860; 46.56%), followed closely by internal focus (IFoA) (2,732; 44.47%), with holistic/general focus (HFoA) considerably less common (551; 8.97%). No significant main effect of player skill level on instruction frequency was observed, F(2, 99) < 1, p > 0.05. However, instruction type exerted a significant main effect, F(2, 99) = 257.90, p < 0.0001, η² = .88. Pairwise comparisons revealed that coaches used EFoA instructions more frequently (M = 48.18, SD = 10.99) than IFoA (M = 42.76, SD = 10.76), t(99) = 2.90, p = 0.0125, and substantially more than HFoA (M = 9.06, SD = 4.34), t(99) = 20.96, p < 0.0001. IFoA was also significantly more frequent than HFoA, t = 19.99, p < 0.0001. A significant interaction emerged between instruction type and player skill level, F(4, 99) = 18.80, p < 0.0001, η² = 0.43. Pairwise analyses indicated: Beginners received more IFoA cues than EFoA and HFoA, with EFoA exceeding HFoA; Intermediate and advanced players received more EFoA cues than IFoA and HFoA, with IFoA also exceeding HFoA. All pairwise contrasts in these patterns reached significance (p < 0.0001). No significant differences were found between EFoA and IFoA within intermediate and advanced groups (p > 0.05), nor among HFoA usage across skill levels (see Figure 1). <span dir="LTR" style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conclusion <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This study examined how tennis coaches naturally tailor their attentional focus instructions according to players’ skill levels in authentic training environments. Overall, coaches favored external focus cues significantly more than internal or neutral ones; yet, the employed cue type varied systematically with player proficiency. Specifically, internal focus instructions predominated for beginners, aiding their understanding of basic movement mechanics. Conversely, external focus cues were emphasized with skilled and advanced players, supporting automaticity and refined performance. This instructional pattern aligns with literature asserting that the efficacy of attentional focus hinges on the athlete’s development stage. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Despite robust empirical support advocating external focus for motor learning, it remains insufficiently applied, especially with novice players. Bridging this research-practice gap necessitates targeted coach education programs emphasizing strategic deployment of external focus cues to optimize learning and performance at all expertise levels. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Article Message <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The study revealed that the content of tennis coaches’ verbal instructions differs according to player skill. Beginners receive more instructions promoting an internal focus of attention, while advanced players are predominantly cued towards external focus. This pattern reflects the unique cognitive and motor demands of tennis, where the use of an external implement (racket) and directing the ball to external targets encourage coaches to prioritize external attentional cues for skilled players and internal cues to support foundational skills for novices. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ethical Considerations <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Isfahan. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Authors’ Contributions <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This manuscript represents a fully collaborative effort; all authors contributed equally to the study and the preparation of the final manuscript. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conflicts of Interest <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The authors report no conflicts of interest. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Acknowledgement<span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The authors gratefully acknowledge the voluntary participation and cooperation of the tennis players and coaches involved in this research. <span dir="LTR" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Although substantial empirical evidence underscores the benefits of external focus instructions in enhancing motor performance and learning, recent findings indicate many coaches still predominantly employ internal focus cues during training sessions. This inconsistency may stem from athletes’ familiarity with internal instructions and coaches’ tendency to reinforce what they perceive as athletes’ preferred instructional style. While laboratory research on attentional focus has advanced considerably, there remains a significant gap in understanding coaches’ natural instructional behaviors in authentic sporting environments. Moreover, the variation in instructional content relative to athletes’ skill levels remains insufficiently explored, particularly in technically demanding sports such as tennis. Given that vague or internally directed cues—for example, "bend your knees"—may impair performance, it is essential to analyze the actual language coaches use during practice. This study investigated the frequency and nature of attentional focus cues—categorized as internal, external, and holistic—used by tennis coaches and examined whether these patterns differ among beginner, skilled, and advanced players. The findings aim to enrich coach education and foster more effective communication strategies. Methods This observational study was conducted within a naturalistic tennis training context to assess the frequency and types of attentional focus instructions provided to players of varying skill levels. The sample comprised 36 tennis players (both male and female; mean age 23.08 ± 1.89 years) and five coaches (mean age 29.81 ± 2.93 years) holding level-one coaching certifications and averaging 6.83 ± 1.61 years of coaching experience. Players were categorized as beginner (n=12), intermediate (n=18), and advanced (n=6) based on coaches’ evaluations and the International Tennis Number (ITN) ranking system. After obtaining written informed consent, coaches wore wireless lapel microphones connected to smartphones, which recorded all verbal interactions during standard outdoor training sessions. Coaches were instructed to maintain their usual instructional behaviors without alteration. To minimize participant bias, the study’s specific aims were withheld. Across summer 2023, recordings were collected from 47 training sessions (mean duration 13.45 ± 3.45 minutes). Audio data were transcribed verbatim and subjected to a structured three-step coding process: statements were first divided into those related or unrelated to motor performance; motor-related statements were then labeled as instructional or non-instructional; finally, instructional statements were categorized by attentional focus type—internal focus of attention (IFoA), external focus of attention (EFoA), holistic/general focus of attention (HFoA), or neutral focus of attention (NFoA). The primary researcher performed coding, with validation by two movement science experts utilizing a critical friend method to ensure reliability. Relative frequencies were calculated to adjust for session length variations. Mixed-effects models analyzed differences in attentional focus usage across skill levels, treating player skill and instruction type as fixed effects and coach identity as a random effect. Results From a total of 15,529 coach-player statements, 13,455 (86.64%) related to motor performance. Of these, 8,535 were instructional, subdivided into attentional focus instructions (6,143; 71.97%) and non-attentional instructions (2,392; 28.03%). Within attentional cues, external focus (EFoA) occurred most frequently (2,860; 46.56%), followed closely by internal focus (IFoA) (2,732; 44.47%), with holistic/general focus (HFoA) considerably less common (551; 8.97%). No significant main effect of player skill level on instruction frequency was observed, F(2, 99) < 1, p > 0.05. However, instruction type exerted a significant main effect, F(2, 99) = 257.90, p < 0.0001, η² = .88. Pairwise comparisons revealed that coaches used EFoA instructions more frequently (M = 48.18, SD = 10.99) than IFoA (M = 42.76, SD = 10.76), t(99) = 2.90, p = 0.0125, and substantially more than HFoA (M = 9.06, SD = 4.34), t(99) = 20.96, p < 0.0001. IFoA was also significantly more frequent than HFoA, t = 19.99, p < 0.0001. A significant interaction emerged between instruction type and player skill level, F(4, 99) = 18.80, p < 0.0001, η² = 0.43. Pairwise analyses indicated: Beginners received more IFoA cues than EFoA and HFoA, with EFoA exceeding HFoA; Intermediate and advanced players received more EFoA cues than IFoA and HFoA, with IFoA also exceeding HFoA. All pairwise contrasts in these patterns reached significance (p < 0.0001). No significant differences were found between EFoA and IFoA within intermediate and advanced groups (p > 0.05), nor among HFoA usage across skill levels (see Figure 1). <span dir="LTR" style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conclusion <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This study examined how tennis coaches naturally tailor their attentional focus instructions according to players’ skill levels in authentic training environments. Overall, coaches favored external focus cues significantly more than internal or neutral ones; yet, the employed cue type varied systematically with player proficiency. Specifically, internal focus instructions predominated for beginners, aiding their understanding of basic movement mechanics. Conversely, external focus cues were emphasized with skilled and advanced players, supporting automaticity and refined performance. This instructional pattern aligns with literature asserting that the efficacy of attentional focus hinges on the athlete’s development stage. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Despite robust empirical support advocating external focus for motor learning, it remains insufficiently applied, especially with novice players. Bridging this research-practice gap necessitates targeted coach education programs emphasizing strategic deployment of external focus cues to optimize learning and performance at all expertise levels. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Article Message <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The study revealed that the content of tennis coaches’ verbal instructions differs according to player skill. Beginners receive more instructions promoting an internal focus of attention, while advanced players are predominantly cued towards external focus. This pattern reflects the unique cognitive and motor demands of tennis, where the use of an external implement (racket) and directing the ball to external targets encourage coaches to prioritize external attentional cues for skilled players and internal cues to support foundational skills for novices. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ethical Considerations <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Isfahan. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Authors’ Contributions <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This manuscript represents a fully collaborative effort; all authors contributed equally to the study and the preparation of the final manuscript. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Conflicts of Interest <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The authors report no conflicts of interest. <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Acknowledgement<span style="mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The authors gratefully acknowledge the voluntary participation and cooperation of the tennis players and coaches involved in this research. <span dir="LTR" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4680_4f5c422f4d49a5a807eda27434231040.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 17 61 2025 10 23 The Effect of Linear and Non-Linear Pedagogy on Self-Organization of Football Players The Effect of Linear and Non-Linear Pedagogy on Self-Organization of Football Players 105 124 4391 10.22089/mbj.2024.15329.2118 FA Hasan Mohammadzadeh Professor in Motor Behavior, Department of Sport Sciences, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran 0000-0002-6060-1479 Milad Boustanban Ghaziyani Ph.D. student, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran 0009-0007-3242-5555 Journal Article 2023 11 05 Extended Abstract Background and Purpose One of the effective factors affecting new students’ learning and participation in sports activities in schools and other educational settings is the teacher's instructional method. Observations have led to the development of alternative pedagogical approaches to teach games to novices through play. Preliminary games—simplified versions of actual games with easier rules—allow learners to participate correctly. This approach is known as non-linear pedagogy. On a daily basis, people face dynamic situations requiring countless decisions about future actions to perform successfully. To succeed under ever-changing conditions, one must consider not only environmental constraints imposed on the individual but also task- and individual-specific constraints present at the time of performance. In biological systems, self-organization occurs within groups of organisms when individual efforts alone are insufficient to accomplish collective tasks. In these circumstances, coordination among members is necessary to reach larger goals. Self-organization refers to systems composed of multiple agents developing structure in the absence of centralized control. In football, team coordination is a foundational condition for success. The type and manner of coaching to enhance coordination, thus promoting self-organization, can guide scientists in identifying appropriate training methods. Which pedagogy—non-linear or traditional—better enhances skill abilities and thereby fosters self-organization in football players is of paramount interest among coaches. Beyond improving self-organization, employing innovative pedagogical approaches in football training may elevate game performance and develop player skills. Therefore, this study aims to examine the effect of linear and non-linear pedagogies on self-organization in football players. Methods This study employed a semi-experimental design incorporating pre-test, post-test, retention, and transfer assessments within four groups. The statistical population consisted of male undergraduate students at Urmia University enrolled in a physical education course during the first semester of the academic year 1401-1402. Forty male students were selected based on responses to personal data questionnaires, including football playing history. None had prior experience playing football. Participants were randomly allocated to four equal groups (n=10 each): training using the SET method, the PP method, the GS method, and the traditional method, respectively. Self-organization was measured using the Spatial Integrated Model of Self-Organization in Football Teams (SIMSOFT). Participants underwent evaluation during four phases: pre-test, post-test, retention test, and transfer test. After signing consent forms, participants competed in two 25-minute halves of 5-on-5 games held on one-quarter of a football field. Evaluation utilized a technical/tactical action scale. Pre-test scores contributed to group homogenization. Data analysis involved repeated measures ANOVA and one-way ANOVA, with subsequent Bonferroni post hoc tests conducted at an alpha level of 0.05. Results Mauchly’s test results for sphericity showed significance levels for pass density (P=0.001), pass accuracy (P=0.119), and efficiency (P=0.001). Repeated measures ANOVA indicated significant effects of time on pass density (P=0.001, F=113.387), interaction effects of time × group (P=0.001, F=8.589), and significant group effects (P=0.001, F=11.489). Similarly, pass accuracy demonstrated significant effects of time (P=0.001, F=190.559), time × group interaction (P=0.001, F=16.604), and group influence (P=0.001, F=11.011). Efficiency also exhibited significant time effect (P=0.001, F=70.308), time × group interaction (P=0.001, F=6.032), and group effect (P=0.001, F=6.328). Further repeated measures ANOVA by group revealed significant effects of time on pass density, pass accuracy, and efficiency across all groups (P<0.05). Bonferroni post hoc testing demonstrated significant improvements from pre-test to post-test stages. The SET, PP, and GS groups exhibited significant progress in transfer phases relative to the traditional group. One-way ANOVA results showed significant between-group differences in pass density, pass accuracy, and efficiency at post-test, retention, and transfer stages (P<0.05). Bonferroni post hoc comparisons indicated that the traditional group performed significantly worse than the other groups across all variables and stages. Conclusion In general, the traditional method of structured training emphasizes intensive technique practice, or in the worst case, focuses on maintaining novice players’ interest in games. In contrast, non-linear pedagogy encourages active participation and a dynamic environment throughout training sessions, placing learners within a comprehensive educational framework that significantly enhances overall learning. Additionally, the communicative aspects of learning during gameplay—such as the interaction between tactics and technique—are evident in non-linear approaches. Non-linear training promotes learner development across social, participatory, and cognitive domains of sports more effectively than traditional methods. Article Message These findings pave a new pathway to analyze and integrate individual and team performance within a unified framework, which can be actualized through enhancing non-linear training methods for skill development in football. Emphasizing core concepts of non-linear pedagogy and dynamic training environments facilitates self-organization, yielding improved outcomes. Since concepts underlying nonlinear training and its effects on self-organization continuously evolve toward a system-based approach to football skill acquisition, further research is warranted in this domain. Ethical Considerations Ethics approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Sport Sciences Research Institute (Code: SSRI.REC-2309-2413). Authors’ Contributions Conceptualization: Hasan Mohammadzadeh Data Collection: Milad Boustanban Ghaziyani Data Analysis: Milad Boustanban Ghaziyani Manuscript Writing: Milad Boustanban Ghaziyani Review and Editing: Hasan Mohammadzadeh Responsible for Funding: Hasan Mohammadzadeh Literature Review: Hasan Mohammadzadeh Project Management: Hasan Mohammadzadeh Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest in scientific, economic, or personal terms. Acknowledgments This research received no specific grant from any public, commercial, or non-profit funding agencies. Extended Abstract Background and Purpose One of the effective factors affecting new students’ learning and participation in sports activities in schools and other educational settings is the teacher's instructional method. Observations have led to the development of alternative pedagogical approaches to teach games to novices through play. Preliminary games—simplified versions of actual games with easier rules—allow learners to participate correctly. This approach is known as non-linear pedagogy. On a daily basis, people face dynamic situations requiring countless decisions about future actions to perform successfully. To succeed under ever-changing conditions, one must consider not only environmental constraints imposed on the individual but also task- and individual-specific constraints present at the time of performance. In biological systems, self-organization occurs within groups of organisms when individual efforts alone are insufficient to accomplish collective tasks. In these circumstances, coordination among members is necessary to reach larger goals. Self-organization refers to systems composed of multiple agents developing structure in the absence of centralized control. In football, team coordination is a foundational condition for success. The type and manner of coaching to enhance coordination, thus promoting self-organization, can guide scientists in identifying appropriate training methods. Which pedagogy—non-linear or traditional—better enhances skill abilities and thereby fosters self-organization in football players is of paramount interest among coaches. Beyond improving self-organization, employing innovative pedagogical approaches in football training may elevate game performance and develop player skills. Therefore, this study aims to examine the effect of linear and non-linear pedagogies on self-organization in football players. Methods This study employed a semi-experimental design incorporating pre-test, post-test, retention, and transfer assessments within four groups. The statistical population consisted of male undergraduate students at Urmia University enrolled in a physical education course during the first semester of the academic year 1401-1402. Forty male students were selected based on responses to personal data questionnaires, including football playing history. None had prior experience playing football. Participants were randomly allocated to four equal groups (n=10 each): training using the SET method, the PP method, the GS method, and the traditional method, respectively. Self-organization was measured using the Spatial Integrated Model of Self-Organization in Football Teams (SIMSOFT). Participants underwent evaluation during four phases: pre-test, post-test, retention test, and transfer test. After signing consent forms, participants competed in two 25-minute halves of 5-on-5 games held on one-quarter of a football field. Evaluation utilized a technical/tactical action scale. Pre-test scores contributed to group homogenization. Data analysis involved repeated measures ANOVA and one-way ANOVA, with subsequent Bonferroni post hoc tests conducted at an alpha level of 0.05. Results Mauchly’s test results for sphericity showed significance levels for pass density (P=0.001), pass accuracy (P=0.119), and efficiency (P=0.001). Repeated measures ANOVA indicated significant effects of time on pass density (P=0.001, F=113.387), interaction effects of time × group (P=0.001, F=8.589), and significant group effects (P=0.001, F=11.489). Similarly, pass accuracy demonstrated significant effects of time (P=0.001, F=190.559), time × group interaction (P=0.001, F=16.604), and group influence (P=0.001, F=11.011). Efficiency also exhibited significant time effect (P=0.001, F=70.308), time × group interaction (P=0.001, F=6.032), and group effect (P=0.001, F=6.328). Further repeated measures ANOVA by group revealed significant effects of time on pass density, pass accuracy, and efficiency across all groups (P<0.05). Bonferroni post hoc testing demonstrated significant improvements from pre-test to post-test stages. The SET, PP, and GS groups exhibited significant progress in transfer phases relative to the traditional group. One-way ANOVA results showed significant between-group differences in pass density, pass accuracy, and efficiency at post-test, retention, and transfer stages (P<0.05). Bonferroni post hoc comparisons indicated that the traditional group performed significantly worse than the other groups across all variables and stages. Conclusion In general, the traditional method of structured training emphasizes intensive technique practice, or in the worst case, focuses on maintaining novice players’ interest in games. In contrast, non-linear pedagogy encourages active participation and a dynamic environment throughout training sessions, placing learners within a comprehensive educational framework that significantly enhances overall learning. Additionally, the communicative aspects of learning during gameplay—such as the interaction between tactics and technique—are evident in non-linear approaches. Non-linear training promotes learner development across social, participatory, and cognitive domains of sports more effectively than traditional methods. Article Message These findings pave a new pathway to analyze and integrate individual and team performance within a unified framework, which can be actualized through enhancing non-linear training methods for skill development in football. Emphasizing core concepts of non-linear pedagogy and dynamic training environments facilitates self-organization, yielding improved outcomes. Since concepts underlying nonlinear training and its effects on self-organization continuously evolve toward a system-based approach to football skill acquisition, further research is warranted in this domain. Ethical Considerations Ethics approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Sport Sciences Research Institute (Code: SSRI.REC-2309-2413). Authors’ Contributions Conceptualization: Hasan Mohammadzadeh Data Collection: Milad Boustanban Ghaziyani Data Analysis: Milad Boustanban Ghaziyani Manuscript Writing: Milad Boustanban Ghaziyani Review and Editing: Hasan Mohammadzadeh Responsible for Funding: Hasan Mohammadzadeh Literature Review: Hasan Mohammadzadeh Project Management: Hasan Mohammadzadeh Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest in scientific, economic, or personal terms. Acknowledgments This research received no specific grant from any public, commercial, or non-profit funding agencies.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4391_41bcfd9ab658ebaac1661f58080aad6b.pdf