Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 18 64 2026 06 22 Effect of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on attention networks and execution of basketball free throw Effect of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on attention networks and execution of basketball free throw 17 37 4133 10.22089/mbj.2024.15421.2121 FA Omid Jahansouz Department of Physical Education, Farhangian University, P.O. Box 14665- 889, Tehran, Iran. Behrouz Abdoli Department of Behavioral Sciences and Cognitive and Sports Technology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran. 0000-0001-6772-2428 Alireza Farsi Department of Behavioral Sciences and Cognitive and Sports Technology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran. 0000-0002-2086-6632 Reza Khosrowabadi Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute Cognitive Science Studies, University of Shahid Beheshti, Tehran, Iran. Journal Article 2023 08 16 Extended Abstract Background and Purpose This study aimed to investigate the effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on attention networks and free throw performance in wheelchair basketball athletes. Utilizing a semi-experimental pre-test, post-test design with a control group, the research included 20 male wheelchair basketball players randomly assigned to either an experimental or control group. The experimental group underwent four sessions of tDCS targeting the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), while the control group received sham stimulation. The study measured the efficacy of attention networks through the components of alerting, orienting, and executive control using the Attention Network Test (ANT). Additionally, free throw performance in wheelchair basketball was assessed. Data were analyzed using factorial variance analysis. Results demonstrated that the experimental group exhibited significant improvement in the alerting and executive control components of attention networks after tDCS compared to the control group. Moreover, a significant difference was observed in free throw performance between the two groups, suggesting a positive impact of tDCS stimulation on basketball performance. Therefore, this study suggests that tDCS can serve as a non-invasive method to enhance executive functions of attention and improve sports performance in wheelchair basketball athletes. The procedure is time-efficient and can be easily integrated into athletes' rest or leisure periods. Methods This quasi-experimental study employed a pretest-intervention-posttest design with a control group to evaluate the impact of four consecutive sessions of continuous transcranial electrical stimulation on attention networks and free throw scores in male wheelchair basketball athletes. The population included approximately 500 male wheelchair basketball players affiliated with sports teams. Using convenience sampling, twenty participants were selected and randomly assigned into two groups of ten: experimental and control. Ethical approval was secured from the Biomedical Research Ethics Committee of Shahid Beheshti University (ethics code IR.SBU.REC.1402.009). Initially, the participants underwent baseline evaluations using the Attention Network Test and the Free Throw Basketball Test. Subsequently, the athletes were randomly assigned to their respective groups. The intervention involved four daily sessions of tDCS with a 24-hour interval between them. Each session consisted of 20 minutes of stimulation with the anode electrode placed on the F3 area (left DLPFC) and the cathode electrode on the FP2 area. The control group received sham stimulation under the same schedule. After completion of the stimulation sessions, post-tests were conducted utilizing the same assessment tools. Results Descriptive statistical analysis indicated that the pre-test mean and standard deviation of free throw scores were 33.50 ± 6.96 for the experimental group and 30.00 ± 7.68 for the control group, revealing no significant baseline difference. However, post-test scores showed an increase to 39.00 ± 7.27 in the experimental group, while the control group's scores remained essentially unchanged at 30.00 ± 7.55. A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed a statistically significant difference in free throw scores between groups at post-test (p=0.014), confirming the intervention's efficacy. For attention network evaluation, a three-way ANOVA (test phase × group × attention component) was conducted. Due to a significant interaction effect, main effects were not interpreted directly. Instead, independent t-tests were used to examine differences within each component between groups. The results showed significant improvements in the alerting component (p=0.005) and executive control component (p=0.021) in the experimental group compared to controls after stimulation. The orientation component did not show a significant change (p=0.261). Overall, these results substantiate the effectiveness of tDCS in enhancing selective components of the attention network in male wheelchair basketball players. Conclusion Selective attention is a critical cognitive function for daily activities, and its improvement is particularly valuable for athletes with disabilities. This study focused on the effects of tDCS on male wheelchair basketball athletes, specifically targeting the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) to assess its impact on attention network components and free throw skill. The ANT components measured alertness, orientation, and executive control. Significant improvements were documented in alertness and executive control in the experimental group relative to controls, supporting the conclusion that tDCS enhances cognitive performance in this athlete population. This inter-study variation may be due to methodological differences between studies. Also, part of the results of the present study showed that transcranial electrical stimulation of the brain in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) has an effect on the free throw skill of wheelchair basketball athletes. It can be stated that tDCS of the brain has the ability to enhance various motor functions. It should also be noted that, it is likely that different brain regions play an effective role in limiting or regulating various aspects of athletes' performance, therefore this is a good justification for using tDCS of the brain to improve and enhance the effectiveness of sports performance. On the other hand, it has been shown that the physiological effects of tDCS on the brain are very diverse and depend on individual characteristics. Notably, executive control appears particularly amenable to stimulation effects, potentially influenced by the number of stimulation sessions—a factor that may explain variations between studies. Additionally, stimulation of the DLPFC positively affected free throw performance, suggesting that tDCS facilitates motor function enhancements. It is also likely that different brain regions regulate distinct aspects of athletic performance, providing rationale for tDCS as a tool to improve sports efficacy. The physiological consequences of tDCS on the brain are diverse and vary according to individual characteristics, underscoring the need for tailored approaches in future applications. Article Message The findings demonstrate that transcranial electrical stimulation can positively influence attention network components and basketball free throw ability in wheelchair basketball athletes. As a non-invasive, time-efficient intervention, tDCS can be conveniently applied during athletes' leisure or rest to improve executive attention functions and athletic performance. Ethical Considerations This research received ethical clearance from the Biomedical Research Ethics Committee of Shahid Beheshti University (IR.SBU.REC.1402.009). Authors’ Contributions Conceptualization, data collection, analysis, manuscript preparation, review, editing, funding, and literature review were conducted collaboratively by Omid Jahansouz, Behrouz Abdoli, Alireza Fars, and Reza Khosrowabadi. Omid Jahansouz also fulfilled the role of project manager. Additional contributions were offered by Saeed Albogbashe. Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Acknowledgments The authors express profound gratitude to all participants, the Federation of Sports for Veterans and Disabled People of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Sports Board for Veterans and Disabled People of Fars Province, coaches, supervisors, and all individuals whose support was instrumental in conducting this research. Extended Abstract Background and Purpose This study aimed to investigate the effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on attention networks and free throw performance in wheelchair basketball athletes. Utilizing a semi-experimental pre-test, post-test design with a control group, the research included 20 male wheelchair basketball players randomly assigned to either an experimental or control group. The experimental group underwent four sessions of tDCS targeting the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), while the control group received sham stimulation. The study measured the efficacy of attention networks through the components of alerting, orienting, and executive control using the Attention Network Test (ANT). Additionally, free throw performance in wheelchair basketball was assessed. Data were analyzed using factorial variance analysis. Results demonstrated that the experimental group exhibited significant improvement in the alerting and executive control components of attention networks after tDCS compared to the control group. Moreover, a significant difference was observed in free throw performance between the two groups, suggesting a positive impact of tDCS stimulation on basketball performance. Therefore, this study suggests that tDCS can serve as a non-invasive method to enhance executive functions of attention and improve sports performance in wheelchair basketball athletes. The procedure is time-efficient and can be easily integrated into athletes' rest or leisure periods. Methods This quasi-experimental study employed a pretest-intervention-posttest design with a control group to evaluate the impact of four consecutive sessions of continuous transcranial electrical stimulation on attention networks and free throw scores in male wheelchair basketball athletes. The population included approximately 500 male wheelchair basketball players affiliated with sports teams. Using convenience sampling, twenty participants were selected and randomly assigned into two groups of ten: experimental and control. Ethical approval was secured from the Biomedical Research Ethics Committee of Shahid Beheshti University (ethics code IR.SBU.REC.1402.009). Initially, the participants underwent baseline evaluations using the Attention Network Test and the Free Throw Basketball Test. Subsequently, the athletes were randomly assigned to their respective groups. The intervention involved four daily sessions of tDCS with a 24-hour interval between them. Each session consisted of 20 minutes of stimulation with the anode electrode placed on the F3 area (left DLPFC) and the cathode electrode on the FP2 area. The control group received sham stimulation under the same schedule. After completion of the stimulation sessions, post-tests were conducted utilizing the same assessment tools. Results Descriptive statistical analysis indicated that the pre-test mean and standard deviation of free throw scores were 33.50 ± 6.96 for the experimental group and 30.00 ± 7.68 for the control group, revealing no significant baseline difference. However, post-test scores showed an increase to 39.00 ± 7.27 in the experimental group, while the control group's scores remained essentially unchanged at 30.00 ± 7.55. A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed a statistically significant difference in free throw scores between groups at post-test (p=0.014), confirming the intervention's efficacy. For attention network evaluation, a three-way ANOVA (test phase × group × attention component) was conducted. Due to a significant interaction effect, main effects were not interpreted directly. Instead, independent t-tests were used to examine differences within each component between groups. The results showed significant improvements in the alerting component (p=0.005) and executive control component (p=0.021) in the experimental group compared to controls after stimulation. The orientation component did not show a significant change (p=0.261). Overall, these results substantiate the effectiveness of tDCS in enhancing selective components of the attention network in male wheelchair basketball players. Conclusion Selective attention is a critical cognitive function for daily activities, and its improvement is particularly valuable for athletes with disabilities. This study focused on the effects of tDCS on male wheelchair basketball athletes, specifically targeting the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) to assess its impact on attention network components and free throw skill. The ANT components measured alertness, orientation, and executive control. Significant improvements were documented in alertness and executive control in the experimental group relative to controls, supporting the conclusion that tDCS enhances cognitive performance in this athlete population. This inter-study variation may be due to methodological differences between studies. Also, part of the results of the present study showed that transcranial electrical stimulation of the brain in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) has an effect on the free throw skill of wheelchair basketball athletes. It can be stated that tDCS of the brain has the ability to enhance various motor functions. It should also be noted that, it is likely that different brain regions play an effective role in limiting or regulating various aspects of athletes' performance, therefore this is a good justification for using tDCS of the brain to improve and enhance the effectiveness of sports performance. On the other hand, it has been shown that the physiological effects of tDCS on the brain are very diverse and depend on individual characteristics. Notably, executive control appears particularly amenable to stimulation effects, potentially influenced by the number of stimulation sessions—a factor that may explain variations between studies. Additionally, stimulation of the DLPFC positively affected free throw performance, suggesting that tDCS facilitates motor function enhancements. It is also likely that different brain regions regulate distinct aspects of athletic performance, providing rationale for tDCS as a tool to improve sports efficacy. The physiological consequences of tDCS on the brain are diverse and vary according to individual characteristics, underscoring the need for tailored approaches in future applications. Article Message The findings demonstrate that transcranial electrical stimulation can positively influence attention network components and basketball free throw ability in wheelchair basketball athletes. As a non-invasive, time-efficient intervention, tDCS can be conveniently applied during athletes' leisure or rest to improve executive attention functions and athletic performance. Ethical Considerations This research received ethical clearance from the Biomedical Research Ethics Committee of Shahid Beheshti University (IR.SBU.REC.1402.009). Authors’ Contributions Conceptualization, data collection, analysis, manuscript preparation, review, editing, funding, and literature review were conducted collaboratively by Omid Jahansouz, Behrouz Abdoli, Alireza Fars, and Reza Khosrowabadi. Omid Jahansouz also fulfilled the role of project manager. Additional contributions were offered by Saeed Albogbashe. Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Acknowledgments The authors express profound gratitude to all participants, the Federation of Sports for Veterans and Disabled People of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Sports Board for Veterans and Disabled People of Fars Province, coaches, supervisors, and all individuals whose support was instrumental in conducting this research.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4133_b2330fc4531de135266de49078c270dd.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 18 64 2026 06 22 Comparison of physical and mental practice of movement task according to the type of practice (errorless – errorfull) Comparison of physical and mental practice of movement task according to the type of practice (errorless – errorfull) 38 62 4799 10.22089/mbj.2025.16849.2163 FA Nayereh Khosrojerdi M.Sc. Student in Motor Behavior, Faculty of Physical Education, Attar institute Of Higher Education, Mashhad, Iran 0009-0001-3554-5698 Amin Ghamari . Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Physical Education, Attar institute Of Higher Education, Mashhad, Iran . Somayeh Golzar Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Mashhad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Mashhad, Iran. Journal Article 2024 07 20 Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Physical practice is widely regarded as the primary method for acquiring motor skills. However, research has indicated that skills can also be learned through approaches that do not involve physical execution, one of which is mental practice. According to Schmidt's schema theory, making errors plays a positive role in motor learning; yet, some evidence demonstrates the positive effectiveness of errorless practice as well. This dichotomy raises the question of whether the mechanisms underlying physical and mental practice differ, and whether their effects might depend on the type of training—specifically, errorless or errorful practice. Given this context, the aim of the present study was to compare the effects of physical and mental practice, with respect to both errorless and errorful modalities, on the acquisition and learning of futsal shooting skills. Methods This study employed a semi-experimental, field-based design. The statistical population included all non-physical education female students at Islamic Azad University, Mashhad branch, enrolled during the summer term of 1402 (2023). A total of 75 students were recruited by convenience sampling and randomly assigned to five equal groups (n = 15 each): errorless mental practice, errorful mental practice, errorless physical practice, errorful physical practice, and a control group. All participants were between 22 and 25 years old and were classified as beginners, having no prior experience or formal involvement in football-related activities. Initially, the experimental task was explained to all participants, after which those in the mental practice groups completed the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire 2 (VMIQ-2) to assess their mental imagery ability. The study began with a pre-test comprising 10 futsal shooting trials from a distance of 3.5 meters. Following a five-minute rest period, the acquisition phase was conducted for the experimental groups, each completing one session of 80 trials, organized into eight blocks of 10 trials each; the control group instead engaged in an unrelated computer task. A two-minute break was provided between blocks. Post-testing was performed in a similar fashion to the pre-test, immediately following the acquisition phase. Participants then completed a self-report sheet (verbal rules) documenting their applied strategies and methods during training. Forty-eight hours later, three additional tests were administered: a retention test (10 shots from six meters), a distance transfer test (10 shots from 6.5 meters), and a secondary transfer test (dual task: counting metronome beats while shooting from six meters), with the order of these tests counterbalanced across participants and a one-minute rest between blocks. For statistical analysis, a mixed-design analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare group performance across the pre- and post-test phases. A one-way ANOVA assessed differences among groups in the retention and transfer tests, with LSD post-hoc tests employed where necessary to explore significant findings. Results Descriptive statistics revealed that both mental practice groups demonstrated relatively high imagery abilities according to VMIQ-2 scores. The results of the 5 × 2 ANOVA (five groups by two test phases) evidenced significant main effects of group (η²p = 0.126, P = 0.049, F(4,70) = 2.512) and phase (η²p = 0.091, P = 0.010, F(1,70) = 7.038), as well as a significant interaction between group and phase (η²p = 0.194, P = 0.004, F(4,70) = 4.201). Critically, there were no group differences in the pre-test (P > 0.05 for all comparisons), affirming homogeneity at baseline. In contrast, post-test comparisons showed that both the errorless mental and errorless physical practice groups significantly outperformed their errorful counterparts (P < 0.05 for both). One-way ANOVA results also revealed significant group differences in retention (η²p = 0.189, P = 0.008, F(3,56) = 4.337), distance transfer (η²p = 0.188, P = 0.008, F(3,56) = 4.338), and secondary transfer testing (η²p = 0.134, P = 0.011, F(3,56) = 4.092). However, no significant group difference was observed in the self-reported verbal rules (η²p = 0.026, P = 0.747, F(3,56) = 0.409). Post-hoc analyses confirmed no pre-test differences between groups. In the post-test phase, participants in both the errorless physical and mental practice groups showed superior performance, with means and standard deviations of (M = 150.56, SD = 40.45) and (M = 148.51, SD = 54.74), respectively. For retention, values were (M = 155.28, SD = 49.92) and (M = 156.6, SD = 43.07); for distance transfer, (M = 156.1, SD = 45.18) and (M = 157.62, SD = 29.9); for secondary transfer, (M = 175.73, SD = 40.73) and (M = 176.84, SD = 4.62), all indicating statistically significant improvements compared to the other groups (P < 0.05). Conclusion The study’s findings indicate that both mental and physical practice conducted with minimal errors (i.e., errorless practice) result in better acquisition and transfer of futsal shooting skills than errorful practice. Contrary to some contemporary research, these results imply a similar underlying mechanism for mental and physical practice, where errorless learning enhances performance. Additionally, consistent with theories of implicit learning and conscious reprocessing, errorless practice favors task learning and generalization, a finding that contradicts traditional beliefs emphasizing the benefits of trial-and-error or errorful practice. It appears that the task type—here, a gross motor skill involving targeted shooting—may be optimally learned under errorless conditions, both physically and mentally. This supports the notion that the nature of the task and the modality of practice should be considered in designing motor learning programs and points to the need for further investigation. Based on these results, both physical and mental errorless practice are effective strategies for the acquisition of futsal shooting in novices. Article Message The results suggest that futsal shooting—a gross motor, target-based skill—is more effectively acquired by beginners through errorless practice, whether physical or mental. This finding highlights the mechanistic similarity between physical and mental practice, contradicts some prior studies, and suggests that error-minimizing approaches may facilitate enhanced motor learning. Consequently, future research should further explore the interaction of task type and practice modality. Ethical Considerations All ethical principles and guidelines in research and scientific publication were scrupulously observed throughout this study. Authors’ Contributions The first author contributed 50%, the second author (supervisor) 30%, and the third author 20% to this research. Conflict of Interest The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest associated with this article. Acknowledgments This article is derived from the first author’s thesis. The authors extend sincere thanks to Mr. Ghamari (supervisor), Ms. Golzar, Mr. Moghadam (Director of the Physical Education Department, Islamic Azad University of Mashhad), and Ms. Rostamian for their support in data collection, as well as to all participants for their valuable involvement in this study. Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Physical practice is widely regarded as the primary method for acquiring motor skills. However, research has indicated that skills can also be learned through approaches that do not involve physical execution, one of which is mental practice. According to Schmidt's schema theory, making errors plays a positive role in motor learning; yet, some evidence demonstrates the positive effectiveness of errorless practice as well. This dichotomy raises the question of whether the mechanisms underlying physical and mental practice differ, and whether their effects might depend on the type of training—specifically, errorless or errorful practice. Given this context, the aim of the present study was to compare the effects of physical and mental practice, with respect to both errorless and errorful modalities, on the acquisition and learning of futsal shooting skills. Methods This study employed a semi-experimental, field-based design. The statistical population included all non-physical education female students at Islamic Azad University, Mashhad branch, enrolled during the summer term of 1402 (2023). A total of 75 students were recruited by convenience sampling and randomly assigned to five equal groups (n = 15 each): errorless mental practice, errorful mental practice, errorless physical practice, errorful physical practice, and a control group. All participants were between 22 and 25 years old and were classified as beginners, having no prior experience or formal involvement in football-related activities. Initially, the experimental task was explained to all participants, after which those in the mental practice groups completed the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire 2 (VMIQ-2) to assess their mental imagery ability. The study began with a pre-test comprising 10 futsal shooting trials from a distance of 3.5 meters. Following a five-minute rest period, the acquisition phase was conducted for the experimental groups, each completing one session of 80 trials, organized into eight blocks of 10 trials each; the control group instead engaged in an unrelated computer task. A two-minute break was provided between blocks. Post-testing was performed in a similar fashion to the pre-test, immediately following the acquisition phase. Participants then completed a self-report sheet (verbal rules) documenting their applied strategies and methods during training. Forty-eight hours later, three additional tests were administered: a retention test (10 shots from six meters), a distance transfer test (10 shots from 6.5 meters), and a secondary transfer test (dual task: counting metronome beats while shooting from six meters), with the order of these tests counterbalanced across participants and a one-minute rest between blocks. For statistical analysis, a mixed-design analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare group performance across the pre- and post-test phases. A one-way ANOVA assessed differences among groups in the retention and transfer tests, with LSD post-hoc tests employed where necessary to explore significant findings. Results Descriptive statistics revealed that both mental practice groups demonstrated relatively high imagery abilities according to VMIQ-2 scores. The results of the 5 × 2 ANOVA (five groups by two test phases) evidenced significant main effects of group (η²p = 0.126, P = 0.049, F(4,70) = 2.512) and phase (η²p = 0.091, P = 0.010, F(1,70) = 7.038), as well as a significant interaction between group and phase (η²p = 0.194, P = 0.004, F(4,70) = 4.201). Critically, there were no group differences in the pre-test (P > 0.05 for all comparisons), affirming homogeneity at baseline. In contrast, post-test comparisons showed that both the errorless mental and errorless physical practice groups significantly outperformed their errorful counterparts (P < 0.05 for both). One-way ANOVA results also revealed significant group differences in retention (η²p = 0.189, P = 0.008, F(3,56) = 4.337), distance transfer (η²p = 0.188, P = 0.008, F(3,56) = 4.338), and secondary transfer testing (η²p = 0.134, P = 0.011, F(3,56) = 4.092). However, no significant group difference was observed in the self-reported verbal rules (η²p = 0.026, P = 0.747, F(3,56) = 0.409). Post-hoc analyses confirmed no pre-test differences between groups. In the post-test phase, participants in both the errorless physical and mental practice groups showed superior performance, with means and standard deviations of (M = 150.56, SD = 40.45) and (M = 148.51, SD = 54.74), respectively. For retention, values were (M = 155.28, SD = 49.92) and (M = 156.6, SD = 43.07); for distance transfer, (M = 156.1, SD = 45.18) and (M = 157.62, SD = 29.9); for secondary transfer, (M = 175.73, SD = 40.73) and (M = 176.84, SD = 4.62), all indicating statistically significant improvements compared to the other groups (P < 0.05). Conclusion The study’s findings indicate that both mental and physical practice conducted with minimal errors (i.e., errorless practice) result in better acquisition and transfer of futsal shooting skills than errorful practice. Contrary to some contemporary research, these results imply a similar underlying mechanism for mental and physical practice, where errorless learning enhances performance. Additionally, consistent with theories of implicit learning and conscious reprocessing, errorless practice favors task learning and generalization, a finding that contradicts traditional beliefs emphasizing the benefits of trial-and-error or errorful practice. It appears that the task type—here, a gross motor skill involving targeted shooting—may be optimally learned under errorless conditions, both physically and mentally. This supports the notion that the nature of the task and the modality of practice should be considered in designing motor learning programs and points to the need for further investigation. Based on these results, both physical and mental errorless practice are effective strategies for the acquisition of futsal shooting in novices. Article Message The results suggest that futsal shooting—a gross motor, target-based skill—is more effectively acquired by beginners through errorless practice, whether physical or mental. This finding highlights the mechanistic similarity between physical and mental practice, contradicts some prior studies, and suggests that error-minimizing approaches may facilitate enhanced motor learning. Consequently, future research should further explore the interaction of task type and practice modality. Ethical Considerations All ethical principles and guidelines in research and scientific publication were scrupulously observed throughout this study. Authors’ Contributions The first author contributed 50%, the second author (supervisor) 30%, and the third author 20% to this research. Conflict of Interest The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest associated with this article. Acknowledgments This article is derived from the first author’s thesis. The authors extend sincere thanks to Mr. Ghamari (supervisor), Ms. Golzar, Mr. Moghadam (Director of the Physical Education Department, Islamic Azad University of Mashhad), and Ms. Rostamian for their support in data collection, as well as to all participants for their valuable involvement in this study.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4799_fecc3a370a23d13b1cf91ac3c1e1ca92.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 18 64 2026 06 22 Dynamic Motor Imagery (dMI): A Novel Approach to Motor Imagery and Its Impact on Temporal Accuracy, Learning, and Football Dribbling Performance Dynamic Motor Imagery (dMI): A Novel Approach to Motor Imagery and Its Impact on Temporal Accuracy, Learning, and Football Dribbling Performance 86 108 4678 10.22089/mbj.2025.16844.2162 FA Saeed Naghizadeh Gonbari Department of Motor Behavior and Sport Management, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran. 0009-0002-8595-9538 Hassan Mohammadzadeh Department of Motor Behavior and Sport Management, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran. 0009-0002-8595-9538 Journal Article 2024 06 02 Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Motor imagery (MI), defined as the mental simulation of a movement without physical execution, has garnered significant attention within sports sciences, performance psychology, and motor rehabilitation. MI activates neural pathways overlapping those engaged during actual movement, stimulating neuromuscular circuits to enhance motor skill acquisition, precision, and performance efficiency. In complex sports like football, MI is particularly valuable for mastering skills such as dribbling, which demand coordinated speed, accuracy, ball control, and rapid decision-making. Recent advances have led to dynamic motor imagery (dMI), a refined technique combining limited physical movement with mental imagery to more closely emulate real movement experiences. Unlike traditional static motor imagery (sMI), which relies solely on cognitive rehearsal, dMI engages sensory–motor processes concurrently, activating neural networks responsible for motor coordination, timing, and control. This dual engagement improves the vividness and clarity of mental representations, strengthens cognitive–motor coupling, and promotes long-term motor skill encoding. Though preliminary research has documented dMI’s efficacy in domains like skiing, gymnastics, and rehabilitation, its impact on sport-specific skills such as football dribbling is less well established. Given the limitations of physical practice—e.g., fatigue, spatial constraints, injury risk—and the shortcomings of static imagery in capturing temporal dynamics, investigating dMI’s effectiveness as a hybrid training modality is timely. This study aimed to compare the effects of dMI, sMI, and physical practice on three critical facets of football dribbling skill: actual performance, temporal congruence between imagery and execution, and skill retention. It hypothesized that dMI’s integrated activation of cognitive, sensory–motor, and perceptual processes would yield superior outcomes versus sMI and physical practice alone. Methods A quasi-experimental pre-test–post-test design with independent groups and retention testing was employed. Participants were 45 right-footed male amateur football players aged 18–20 years (mean = 19.7, SD = 0.7), each with a minimum of six years’ experience and no injuries or musculoskeletal issues, verified by a corrective movement specialist. Mental imagery ability was screened using the revised Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ-R). Participants were randomized into three equal groups: physical practice, sMI, and dMI. The standardized football dribbling test required dribbling through a zigzag course around five cones spaced one meter apart, returning to start. Completion times were recorded, with penalties for cone contact or deviation. Video-recorded qualitative analysis assessed movement initiation, direction change fluidity, readiness, and upper body efficiency by two blinded expert coaches using a 0–10 scale. Following baseline testing, participants underwent 12 sessions over three weeks, each comprising 10 physical dribbling repetitions and 10 mental imagery trials. The physical practice group performed only actual dribbling. The sMI group executed sMI immediately after each physical trial without movement. The dMI group, after a one-minute rest post-physical trial, performed dMI involving leg movements simulating dribbling initiation while maintaining upper body stillness, enhancing sensorimotor and spatiotemporal representation. Post-tests involved measuring actual dribbling times and self-timed mental imagery durations. A retention test 24 hours later assessed learning durability. No feedback was provided during training or testing to maintain consistency. Data normality and variance homogeneity were confirmed (Shapiro–Wilk, Levene tests). Group comparisons used one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc corrections (SPSS v20, significance at P ≤ 0.05). Additionally, qualitative aspects of performance were analyzed via video recordings of each trial. Two expert coaches, blinded to group assignments, evaluated performance using a 0–10 Likert scale based on four criteria: movement initiation, direction change, physical readiness, and upper body efficiency. In the pre-test phase, after a general warm-up, all participants performed the dribbling test. No feedback regarding performance outcomes was provided to avoid bias. Over the following three weeks, each group underwent four training sessions per week. Each session included 10 physical dribbling executions and 10 mental imagery trials. The physical practice group performed only actual dribbling trials. The sMI group, after each physical execution, performed static mental imagery of the skill without physical movement. In contrast, the dMI group, after a one-minute relaxation period following the physical execution, stood behind the first cone and performed dynamic mental imagery while mimicking dribbling initiation movements with their legs, keeping the upper body still. This approach focused on enhancing sensorimotor engagement and spatiotemporal representation, as proposed by Guillot et al. (2013). Post-training, participants completed a post-test. Actual execution times were recorded by the experimenter, and mental imagery durations were recorded by participants themselves using a handheld stopwatch, activated at the start and stopped at the end of imagery. A retention test, without prior practice, was administered 24 hours later to assess long-term learning. No feedback or encouragement was provided during the intervention or testing phases to ensure uniform conditions. Finally, data on actual performance time, mental imagery duration, dribbling success, and coaches’ evaluation scores were collected and analyzed. Normality of data distribution was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test, and homogeneity of variances was checked using Levene’s test. Group differences were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni post hoc tests. All analyses were performed using SPSS version 20, with a significance level set at P ≤ 0.05. Results All groups showed significant post-test improvements relative to pre-test. However, dMI participants exhibited markedly greater performance gains, executing the dribble faster and with enhanced precision and control. ANOVA revealed significant group differences post-intervention, with dMI outperforming physical practice in execution time. Though differences between dMI and sMI or sMI and physical practice were not statistically significant, effect trends favored dMI. Temporal congruence analyses revealed dMI participants’ mental imagery durations closely matched physical execution times, indicating superior cognitive representation and motor memory consolidation. The sMI group exhibited less temporal alignment. Table 1: Ben Ferroni test results for pairwise comparison of dribbling post-test scores groups difference in group means Standard error of the standard deviation p physical practice & static motor imagery 0/89 0.45 0/16 physical practice & static motor imagery 1/86 0/45 0/001 dynamic motor imagery 0/98 0/45 0/11 In the retention test conducted 24 hours after the conclusion of the training phase, significant group differences were again observed. The dMI group maintained superior performance, showing a more stable reduction in dribbling time. Qualitative evaluations corroborated these findings; dMI subjects scored higher in technical components such as movement initiation, agility in directional changes, body control, limb positioning, and inter-segment coordination. These gains likely reflect somatosensory feedback from limited physical movement during imagery, enhancing proprioceptive and spatial awareness. Overall, results affirm dMI’s superiority in enhancing motor performance, timing accuracy, and skill retention through integrated cognitive and motor activation. Table 2: Bonferroni test results for pairwise comparison of dribbling retention scores groups difference in group means Standard error of the standard deviation p physical practice & static motor imagery 1.36 0.55 0.053 physical practice & static motor imagery 2/32 0/55 0/001 dynamic motor imagery 0/96 0/55 0/27 These results indicated that participants who engaged in dMI not only executed the dribbling task more quickly but also retained the technical quality of their performance more effectively. Another key finding concerned the temporal congruence between mental imagery and actual execution. In the dMI group, the duration of mental imagery closely matched the time of real performance, indicating higher accuracy in cognitive representation and better consolidation of the skill’s temporal algorithm in motor memory. This temporal alignment suggests that dMI participants were able to synchronize their mental imagery with the rhythm, speed, and sequence of actual performance. In contrast, the sMI group showed greater discrepancies and inconsistencies in this regard. In addition to timing measures, qualitative data collected through video analysis by two expert coaches revealed that the dMI group received higher scores across technical performance components—including movement initiation, agility during direction changes, body control, limb positioning, and coordination between lower and upper body movements. These findings suggest that dMI participants not only performed faster but also executed the skill with greater technical proficiency. Overall, the results indicate that dynamic motor imagery (dMI) has a significantly more positive effect than static imagery (sMI) and physical practice alone on performance enhancement, temporal accuracy, and technical quality in football dribbling. This advantage was also sustained in the retention test, indicating that learning in the dMI group was more durable. The findings support the idea that combining mental imagery with limited physical movement plays a critical role in fostering sensorimotor integration and facilitating the storage and retrieval of motor skills in long-term memory. Conclusion This study demonstrates that dynamic motor imagery is a highly effective, advanced method to improve learning, execution, and temporal precision of complex motor skills like football dribbling. The dMI group consistently outperformed sMI and physical practice groups across execution speed, imagery timing, technical quality, and retention stability. The findings align with cognitive-motor frameworks asserting that combined mental and physical rehearsal activates overlapping brain regions (motor cortex, cerebellum, basal ganglia), strengthening motor representations and predictions. Producing multisensory encoding via limited movement enhances imagery vividness and motor learning effectiveness. Practically, dMI offers a valuable tool for athletes facing constraints such as injury, fatigue, or limited training space. Its accessibility requires minimal equipment and can be applied by coaches, psychologists, or athletes independently. Beyond performance, dMI may boost motivation and immersion. However, careful adaptation is necessary for populations with cognitive or motor limitations. Future research should clarify neurophysiological mechanisms, long-term effects, and efficacy across sports, ages, and skill levels. Developing standardized protocols will facilitate dMI’s application in real-world settings. Article Message Dynamic motor imagery, by integrating subtle physical movements with mental rehearsal, significantly enhances motor skill acquisition, technical performance, and temporal accuracy beyond static imagery or physical practice alone. dMI represents an innovative, practical training approach that can complement traditional methods, particularly when physical execution is constrained. Ethical Considerations The study was approved by the institutional ethics committee. Participants provided informed consent and were informed of the study’s objectives. Confidentiality and anonymity were maintained. Authors’ Contributions Both authors contributed equally to conceptualization. The first author led data collection and manuscript drafting. The second author supervised data analysis, critically reviewed, and managed the project. Both approved the final manuscript. Data Collection: The first author was responsible for collecting the data with support from the second author. Data Analysis: Both authors collaborated in the analysis and interpretation of the data. Manuscript Writing: The initial draft of the manuscript was prepared by the first author. Review and Editing: The second author reviewed and revised the manuscript critically for intellectual content. Responsible for funding: This study was conducted without external funding; both authors managed resources internally. Literature Review: The first author conducted the literature review with input and suggestions from the second author. Project Manager: The second author supervised the project and coordinated all research stages. Any other Contributions: Both authors approved the final version of the manuscript and accept full responsibility for its content. Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Acknowledgments The authors gratefully thank the participating athletes for their dedication to the study Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Motor imagery (MI), defined as the mental simulation of a movement without physical execution, has garnered significant attention within sports sciences, performance psychology, and motor rehabilitation. MI activates neural pathways overlapping those engaged during actual movement, stimulating neuromuscular circuits to enhance motor skill acquisition, precision, and performance efficiency. In complex sports like football, MI is particularly valuable for mastering skills such as dribbling, which demand coordinated speed, accuracy, ball control, and rapid decision-making. Recent advances have led to dynamic motor imagery (dMI), a refined technique combining limited physical movement with mental imagery to more closely emulate real movement experiences. Unlike traditional static motor imagery (sMI), which relies solely on cognitive rehearsal, dMI engages sensory–motor processes concurrently, activating neural networks responsible for motor coordination, timing, and control. This dual engagement improves the vividness and clarity of mental representations, strengthens cognitive–motor coupling, and promotes long-term motor skill encoding. Though preliminary research has documented dMI’s efficacy in domains like skiing, gymnastics, and rehabilitation, its impact on sport-specific skills such as football dribbling is less well established. Given the limitations of physical practice—e.g., fatigue, spatial constraints, injury risk—and the shortcomings of static imagery in capturing temporal dynamics, investigating dMI’s effectiveness as a hybrid training modality is timely. This study aimed to compare the effects of dMI, sMI, and physical practice on three critical facets of football dribbling skill: actual performance, temporal congruence between imagery and execution, and skill retention. It hypothesized that dMI’s integrated activation of cognitive, sensory–motor, and perceptual processes would yield superior outcomes versus sMI and physical practice alone. Methods A quasi-experimental pre-test–post-test design with independent groups and retention testing was employed. Participants were 45 right-footed male amateur football players aged 18–20 years (mean = 19.7, SD = 0.7), each with a minimum of six years’ experience and no injuries or musculoskeletal issues, verified by a corrective movement specialist. Mental imagery ability was screened using the revised Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ-R). Participants were randomized into three equal groups: physical practice, sMI, and dMI. The standardized football dribbling test required dribbling through a zigzag course around five cones spaced one meter apart, returning to start. Completion times were recorded, with penalties for cone contact or deviation. Video-recorded qualitative analysis assessed movement initiation, direction change fluidity, readiness, and upper body efficiency by two blinded expert coaches using a 0–10 scale. Following baseline testing, participants underwent 12 sessions over three weeks, each comprising 10 physical dribbling repetitions and 10 mental imagery trials. The physical practice group performed only actual dribbling. The sMI group executed sMI immediately after each physical trial without movement. The dMI group, after a one-minute rest post-physical trial, performed dMI involving leg movements simulating dribbling initiation while maintaining upper body stillness, enhancing sensorimotor and spatiotemporal representation. Post-tests involved measuring actual dribbling times and self-timed mental imagery durations. A retention test 24 hours later assessed learning durability. No feedback was provided during training or testing to maintain consistency. Data normality and variance homogeneity were confirmed (Shapiro–Wilk, Levene tests). Group comparisons used one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc corrections (SPSS v20, significance at P ≤ 0.05). Additionally, qualitative aspects of performance were analyzed via video recordings of each trial. Two expert coaches, blinded to group assignments, evaluated performance using a 0–10 Likert scale based on four criteria: movement initiation, direction change, physical readiness, and upper body efficiency. In the pre-test phase, after a general warm-up, all participants performed the dribbling test. No feedback regarding performance outcomes was provided to avoid bias. Over the following three weeks, each group underwent four training sessions per week. Each session included 10 physical dribbling executions and 10 mental imagery trials. The physical practice group performed only actual dribbling trials. The sMI group, after each physical execution, performed static mental imagery of the skill without physical movement. In contrast, the dMI group, after a one-minute relaxation period following the physical execution, stood behind the first cone and performed dynamic mental imagery while mimicking dribbling initiation movements with their legs, keeping the upper body still. This approach focused on enhancing sensorimotor engagement and spatiotemporal representation, as proposed by Guillot et al. (2013). Post-training, participants completed a post-test. Actual execution times were recorded by the experimenter, and mental imagery durations were recorded by participants themselves using a handheld stopwatch, activated at the start and stopped at the end of imagery. A retention test, without prior practice, was administered 24 hours later to assess long-term learning. No feedback or encouragement was provided during the intervention or testing phases to ensure uniform conditions. Finally, data on actual performance time, mental imagery duration, dribbling success, and coaches’ evaluation scores were collected and analyzed. Normality of data distribution was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test, and homogeneity of variances was checked using Levene’s test. Group differences were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni post hoc tests. All analyses were performed using SPSS version 20, with a significance level set at P ≤ 0.05. Results All groups showed significant post-test improvements relative to pre-test. However, dMI participants exhibited markedly greater performance gains, executing the dribble faster and with enhanced precision and control. ANOVA revealed significant group differences post-intervention, with dMI outperforming physical practice in execution time. Though differences between dMI and sMI or sMI and physical practice were not statistically significant, effect trends favored dMI. Temporal congruence analyses revealed dMI participants’ mental imagery durations closely matched physical execution times, indicating superior cognitive representation and motor memory consolidation. The sMI group exhibited less temporal alignment. Table 1: Ben Ferroni test results for pairwise comparison of dribbling post-test scores groups difference in group means Standard error of the standard deviation p physical practice & static motor imagery 0/89 0.45 0/16 physical practice & static motor imagery 1/86 0/45 0/001 dynamic motor imagery 0/98 0/45 0/11 In the retention test conducted 24 hours after the conclusion of the training phase, significant group differences were again observed. The dMI group maintained superior performance, showing a more stable reduction in dribbling time. Qualitative evaluations corroborated these findings; dMI subjects scored higher in technical components such as movement initiation, agility in directional changes, body control, limb positioning, and inter-segment coordination. These gains likely reflect somatosensory feedback from limited physical movement during imagery, enhancing proprioceptive and spatial awareness. Overall, results affirm dMI’s superiority in enhancing motor performance, timing accuracy, and skill retention through integrated cognitive and motor activation. Table 2: Bonferroni test results for pairwise comparison of dribbling retention scores groups difference in group means Standard error of the standard deviation p physical practice & static motor imagery 1.36 0.55 0.053 physical practice & static motor imagery 2/32 0/55 0/001 dynamic motor imagery 0/96 0/55 0/27 These results indicated that participants who engaged in dMI not only executed the dribbling task more quickly but also retained the technical quality of their performance more effectively. Another key finding concerned the temporal congruence between mental imagery and actual execution. In the dMI group, the duration of mental imagery closely matched the time of real performance, indicating higher accuracy in cognitive representation and better consolidation of the skill’s temporal algorithm in motor memory. This temporal alignment suggests that dMI participants were able to synchronize their mental imagery with the rhythm, speed, and sequence of actual performance. In contrast, the sMI group showed greater discrepancies and inconsistencies in this regard. In addition to timing measures, qualitative data collected through video analysis by two expert coaches revealed that the dMI group received higher scores across technical performance components—including movement initiation, agility during direction changes, body control, limb positioning, and coordination between lower and upper body movements. These findings suggest that dMI participants not only performed faster but also executed the skill with greater technical proficiency. Overall, the results indicate that dynamic motor imagery (dMI) has a significantly more positive effect than static imagery (sMI) and physical practice alone on performance enhancement, temporal accuracy, and technical quality in football dribbling. This advantage was also sustained in the retention test, indicating that learning in the dMI group was more durable. The findings support the idea that combining mental imagery with limited physical movement plays a critical role in fostering sensorimotor integration and facilitating the storage and retrieval of motor skills in long-term memory. Conclusion This study demonstrates that dynamic motor imagery is a highly effective, advanced method to improve learning, execution, and temporal precision of complex motor skills like football dribbling. The dMI group consistently outperformed sMI and physical practice groups across execution speed, imagery timing, technical quality, and retention stability. The findings align with cognitive-motor frameworks asserting that combined mental and physical rehearsal activates overlapping brain regions (motor cortex, cerebellum, basal ganglia), strengthening motor representations and predictions. Producing multisensory encoding via limited movement enhances imagery vividness and motor learning effectiveness. Practically, dMI offers a valuable tool for athletes facing constraints such as injury, fatigue, or limited training space. Its accessibility requires minimal equipment and can be applied by coaches, psychologists, or athletes independently. Beyond performance, dMI may boost motivation and immersion. However, careful adaptation is necessary for populations with cognitive or motor limitations. Future research should clarify neurophysiological mechanisms, long-term effects, and efficacy across sports, ages, and skill levels. Developing standardized protocols will facilitate dMI’s application in real-world settings. Article Message Dynamic motor imagery, by integrating subtle physical movements with mental rehearsal, significantly enhances motor skill acquisition, technical performance, and temporal accuracy beyond static imagery or physical practice alone. dMI represents an innovative, practical training approach that can complement traditional methods, particularly when physical execution is constrained. Ethical Considerations The study was approved by the institutional ethics committee. Participants provided informed consent and were informed of the study’s objectives. Confidentiality and anonymity were maintained. Authors’ Contributions Both authors contributed equally to conceptualization. The first author led data collection and manuscript drafting. The second author supervised data analysis, critically reviewed, and managed the project. Both approved the final manuscript. Data Collection: The first author was responsible for collecting the data with support from the second author. Data Analysis: Both authors collaborated in the analysis and interpretation of the data. Manuscript Writing: The initial draft of the manuscript was prepared by the first author. Review and Editing: The second author reviewed and revised the manuscript critically for intellectual content. Responsible for funding: This study was conducted without external funding; both authors managed resources internally. Literature Review: The first author conducted the literature review with input and suggestions from the second author. Project Manager: The second author supervised the project and coordinated all research stages. Any other Contributions: Both authors approved the final version of the manuscript and accept full responsibility for its content. Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Acknowledgments The authors gratefully thank the participating athletes for their dedication to the study

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4678_ac4d17530106c3e3c2fb5e2dad0e51b7.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 18 64 2026 06 22 Evaluation of upper extremity motor performance and cognitive functions in older adults following cognitive-coordination exercises: Effects of life kinetik training Evaluation of upper extremity motor performance and cognitive functions in older adults following cognitive-coordination exercises: Effects of life kinetik training 109 134 4823 10.22089/mbj.2025.18414.2230 FA Shohre Mardasangi Dulabi PhD Student in Motor Learning and Control, Department of Motor Behavior and Sports Management, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran. 0000-0003-3434-9430 Maryam Nezakat Alhosseini Department of Motor Behavior and Sports Management, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran. 0000-0002-4603-7947 Mehdi Rafeie Broujeni Department of Motor Behavior and Sports Management, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran. 0000-0001-8139-6139 Shahram Lenjannejadian Department of Sports Injuries and Corrective Exercises, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran. 0000-0002-3925-2227 Journal Article 2025 08 29 Extended Abstract Background and Purpose control is influenced by higher-order cognitive processes and plays a vital role in performing complex activities, effective interventions to preserve these capabilities in old age are essential. Structured upper-limb exercises requiring active sensory information processing can effectively activate cortical regions associated with cognition as well as motor areas. The level of cortical activation may vary depending on hand function and activity. This suggests a predictive relationship between cognitive function and upper-limb motor performance—indeed, higher cognitive function appears to correlate with enhanced upper-limb motor performance. Life Kinetik training is a mind-body exercise that integrates three key components—cognitive challenges, motor activities, and visual-perceptual training (particularly peripheral visual perception). Research indicates that such training can improve cognitive functions, especially executive functions, as well as enhance physical abilities. Accordingly, the present study aimed to examine the effects of Life Kinetik training on upper limb motor function (grip strength, manual dexterity, motor coordination, and arm stability) and executive functions in elderly women. Methods This quasi-experimental study employed a pretest-posttest control group design involving 30 elderly women aged over 60 years. The inclusion criteria were: (1) age > 60 years, (2) no history of acute cardiopulmonary diseases, traumatic brain injuries, or orthopedic conditions, (3) absence of severe physical impairments, (4) ability to walk independently without assistive devices, (5) minimum score of 21 on the Mini Mental State Examination, and (6) ability to complete a buttoning test in <25 seconds. Exclusion criteria included unwillingness to continue participation or missing >3 training sessions. Ethical approval (code: IR.UI.REC.1403.142) was obtained from the University of Isfahan Research Ethics Committee, and written informed consent was acquired from all participants. Participants were purposively sampled from the elderly population of Isfahan and randomly allocated to either an experimental group (n = 15) or a control group (n = 15). The experimental group completed 12 weeks of Life Kinetik training (3 sessions/week, 60 minutes/session). The duration of each session was 60 minutes. The first 15 minutes were dedicated to stretching and breathing exercises. In the next 30 minutes, Life Kinetik exercises were performed using equipment such as balls, napkins, ropes, and rackets, progressing from simple and basic to more complex patterns. Also, a 30-second rest period was considered between each exercise. At the end of the training session, the recovery phase was performed for 15 minutes, focusing on low-intensity stretching movements. The Pegboard, Dynamometer, Finger-to-Nose, Arm Stability, and Tower of London tests were used to measure manual dexterity, grip strength, coordination, arm stability, and executive functions, respectively. Analysis of variance with repeated measures was used to analyze the data. Results For grip strength, the within-group effect (F(1,28) = 19.278, p < 0.001, η² = 0.408) and the interaction of time × group (F(1,28) = 21.648, p < 0.001, η² = 0.436) were significant. Post hoc analysis revealed that the mean grip strength in the experimental group significantly increased after the intervention compared to the control group (p = 0.050, mean difference = 3.53). For manual dexterity, the time × group interaction was significant (F(1,28) = 18.797, p < 0.001, η² = 0.404). Bonferroni post hoc analysis showed significant within-group changes in the experimental group (p < 0.001, mean difference = 1.80), and between-group comparison revealed significantly higher scores in the experimental group compared to the control (p = 0.003, mean difference = 1.60). In motor coordination, the between-group effect (F(1,28) = 10.909, p = 0.003, η² = 0.280), time × group interaction (F(1,28) = 5.626, p = 0.025, η² = 0.167), and within-group effect (F(1,28) = 16.085, p < 0.001, η² = 0.365) were all significant. Post hoc tests showed that the experimental group significantly outperformed both its own pretest scores and the control group in the posttest (p < 0.001, mean difference = 4.93). For arm stability, a significant time × group interaction was observed for all three wrist stability components. Post hoc analysis indicated that in within-group comparisons, the experimental group demonstrated statistically significant improvements in Yaw-Pitch (p < 0.001, mean difference = 6.66), Yaw-Roll (p = 0.002, mean difference = 6.57), and Roll-Pitch (p < 0.001, mean difference = 6.57), and the mean scores of all three components—Yaw-Pitch, Yaw-Roll, and Roll-Pitch—decreased significantly in the experimental group after performing the exercises. Between-group comparisons demonstrated statistically superior performance in the experimental group in Yaw-Pitch (p = 0.037, mean difference = 6.55), Yaw-Roll (p = 0.041, mean difference = 6.57), and Roll-Pitch (p = 0.040, mean difference = 6.56). For executive functions (Tower of London test), the within-group effect (F(1,28) = 11.487, p = 0.002, η² = 0.291) and the time × group interaction (F(1,28) = 18.699, p < 0.001, η² = 0.400) were significant. Post hoc analysis indicated that the mean executive function score in the experimental group significantly increased after the intervention (p < 0.001, mean difference = 4.40), and between-group comparison also showed significantly higher scores in the experimental group compared to the control (mean difference = 2.73, p = 0.046). Conclusion The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Life Kinetik coordination-cognitive training on upper-limb motor performance and executive functions in older adults. The results demonstrated that eight weeks of Life Kinetik training significantly improved upper-limb motor function in the elderly. These findings align with prior research highlighting the positive effects of dual-task motor-cognitive exercises on motor performance. Life Kinetik exercises incorporate three core components: (1) cognitive tasks, (2) simultaneous multitasking, and (3) motor activities. These exercises combine unconventional movements, concurrent processing of multiple sensory stimuli, and cognitive challenges, which collectively enhance neuromuscular activation and elevate motor control. Furthermore, the eight-week intervention led to measurable improvements in executive functions among participants. This outcome is consistent with studies demonstrating the efficacy of motor-cognitive training in stimulating prefrontal neural networks and enhancing cognitive flexibility. The observed benefits may be attributed to Life Kinetik's role in upregulating brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). By reinforcing memory processes, boosting metabolic efficiency, and promoting synaptic plasticity, BDNF appears to critically underlie the enhancement of executive functions. From an applied perspective, the present findings indicate that Life Kinetik exercises can be employed as a simple, engaging, and accessible method for the rehabilitation of older adults. Improvements in grip strength and manual dexterity can enhance seniors' independence in activities such as grasping objects, fastening buttons, or writing. Furthermore, the enhancement of executive functions can strengthen decision-making abilities, problem-solving skills, and the management of daily tasks such as medication adherence or financial management. This holds significant practical importance, as the integration of cognitive and motor components in training induces comprehensive adaptations in the nervous system that extend beyond a single domain and may contribute to improved quality of life. Article Message The Life Kinetik coordination-cognitive training model is a non-invasive method that can be implemented in various settings (e.g., clinical centers, home environments) with minimal cost and adverse effects. Therefore, these exercises may represent a promising intervention for enhancing motor and cognitive functions and, ultimately, improving the quality of life in older adults. Ethical Considerations The present study was conducted after confirmation and receiving the code of ethics (IR.UI.REC.1403.142) from the Scientific Research Committee of the University of Isfahan. Authors’ Contributions Conceptualization: The second and third authors Data Collection: The first author Data Analysis: The fourth author Manuscript Writing: The first author Review and Editing: Second and fourth authors Responsible for funding: [Not specified in original] Literature Review: The first, second, and third authors Project Manager: Second author Any other Contributions: [Not specified in original] Conflict of Interest No conflict of interest has been declared by the authors. Acknowledgments This article is extracted from a doctoral dissertation. We sincerely thank the elderly women who took part in this study. Extended Abstract Background and Purpose control is influenced by higher-order cognitive processes and plays a vital role in performing complex activities, effective interventions to preserve these capabilities in old age are essential. Structured upper-limb exercises requiring active sensory information processing can effectively activate cortical regions associated with cognition as well as motor areas. The level of cortical activation may vary depending on hand function and activity. This suggests a predictive relationship between cognitive function and upper-limb motor performance—indeed, higher cognitive function appears to correlate with enhanced upper-limb motor performance. Life Kinetik training is a mind-body exercise that integrates three key components—cognitive challenges, motor activities, and visual-perceptual training (particularly peripheral visual perception). Research indicates that such training can improve cognitive functions, especially executive functions, as well as enhance physical abilities. Accordingly, the present study aimed to examine the effects of Life Kinetik training on upper limb motor function (grip strength, manual dexterity, motor coordination, and arm stability) and executive functions in elderly women. Methods This quasi-experimental study employed a pretest-posttest control group design involving 30 elderly women aged over 60 years. The inclusion criteria were: (1) age > 60 years, (2) no history of acute cardiopulmonary diseases, traumatic brain injuries, or orthopedic conditions, (3) absence of severe physical impairments, (4) ability to walk independently without assistive devices, (5) minimum score of 21 on the Mini Mental State Examination, and (6) ability to complete a buttoning test in <25 seconds. Exclusion criteria included unwillingness to continue participation or missing >3 training sessions. Ethical approval (code: IR.UI.REC.1403.142) was obtained from the University of Isfahan Research Ethics Committee, and written informed consent was acquired from all participants. Participants were purposively sampled from the elderly population of Isfahan and randomly allocated to either an experimental group (n = 15) or a control group (n = 15). The experimental group completed 12 weeks of Life Kinetik training (3 sessions/week, 60 minutes/session). The duration of each session was 60 minutes. The first 15 minutes were dedicated to stretching and breathing exercises. In the next 30 minutes, Life Kinetik exercises were performed using equipment such as balls, napkins, ropes, and rackets, progressing from simple and basic to more complex patterns. Also, a 30-second rest period was considered between each exercise. At the end of the training session, the recovery phase was performed for 15 minutes, focusing on low-intensity stretching movements. The Pegboard, Dynamometer, Finger-to-Nose, Arm Stability, and Tower of London tests were used to measure manual dexterity, grip strength, coordination, arm stability, and executive functions, respectively. Analysis of variance with repeated measures was used to analyze the data. Results For grip strength, the within-group effect (F(1,28) = 19.278, p < 0.001, η² = 0.408) and the interaction of time × group (F(1,28) = 21.648, p < 0.001, η² = 0.436) were significant. Post hoc analysis revealed that the mean grip strength in the experimental group significantly increased after the intervention compared to the control group (p = 0.050, mean difference = 3.53). For manual dexterity, the time × group interaction was significant (F(1,28) = 18.797, p < 0.001, η² = 0.404). Bonferroni post hoc analysis showed significant within-group changes in the experimental group (p < 0.001, mean difference = 1.80), and between-group comparison revealed significantly higher scores in the experimental group compared to the control (p = 0.003, mean difference = 1.60). In motor coordination, the between-group effect (F(1,28) = 10.909, p = 0.003, η² = 0.280), time × group interaction (F(1,28) = 5.626, p = 0.025, η² = 0.167), and within-group effect (F(1,28) = 16.085, p < 0.001, η² = 0.365) were all significant. Post hoc tests showed that the experimental group significantly outperformed both its own pretest scores and the control group in the posttest (p < 0.001, mean difference = 4.93). For arm stability, a significant time × group interaction was observed for all three wrist stability components. Post hoc analysis indicated that in within-group comparisons, the experimental group demonstrated statistically significant improvements in Yaw-Pitch (p < 0.001, mean difference = 6.66), Yaw-Roll (p = 0.002, mean difference = 6.57), and Roll-Pitch (p < 0.001, mean difference = 6.57), and the mean scores of all three components—Yaw-Pitch, Yaw-Roll, and Roll-Pitch—decreased significantly in the experimental group after performing the exercises. Between-group comparisons demonstrated statistically superior performance in the experimental group in Yaw-Pitch (p = 0.037, mean difference = 6.55), Yaw-Roll (p = 0.041, mean difference = 6.57), and Roll-Pitch (p = 0.040, mean difference = 6.56). For executive functions (Tower of London test), the within-group effect (F(1,28) = 11.487, p = 0.002, η² = 0.291) and the time × group interaction (F(1,28) = 18.699, p < 0.001, η² = 0.400) were significant. Post hoc analysis indicated that the mean executive function score in the experimental group significantly increased after the intervention (p < 0.001, mean difference = 4.40), and between-group comparison also showed significantly higher scores in the experimental group compared to the control (mean difference = 2.73, p = 0.046). Conclusion The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Life Kinetik coordination-cognitive training on upper-limb motor performance and executive functions in older adults. The results demonstrated that eight weeks of Life Kinetik training significantly improved upper-limb motor function in the elderly. These findings align with prior research highlighting the positive effects of dual-task motor-cognitive exercises on motor performance. Life Kinetik exercises incorporate three core components: (1) cognitive tasks, (2) simultaneous multitasking, and (3) motor activities. These exercises combine unconventional movements, concurrent processing of multiple sensory stimuli, and cognitive challenges, which collectively enhance neuromuscular activation and elevate motor control. Furthermore, the eight-week intervention led to measurable improvements in executive functions among participants. This outcome is consistent with studies demonstrating the efficacy of motor-cognitive training in stimulating prefrontal neural networks and enhancing cognitive flexibility. The observed benefits may be attributed to Life Kinetik's role in upregulating brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). By reinforcing memory processes, boosting metabolic efficiency, and promoting synaptic plasticity, BDNF appears to critically underlie the enhancement of executive functions. From an applied perspective, the present findings indicate that Life Kinetik exercises can be employed as a simple, engaging, and accessible method for the rehabilitation of older adults. Improvements in grip strength and manual dexterity can enhance seniors' independence in activities such as grasping objects, fastening buttons, or writing. Furthermore, the enhancement of executive functions can strengthen decision-making abilities, problem-solving skills, and the management of daily tasks such as medication adherence or financial management. This holds significant practical importance, as the integration of cognitive and motor components in training induces comprehensive adaptations in the nervous system that extend beyond a single domain and may contribute to improved quality of life. Article Message The Life Kinetik coordination-cognitive training model is a non-invasive method that can be implemented in various settings (e.g., clinical centers, home environments) with minimal cost and adverse effects. Therefore, these exercises may represent a promising intervention for enhancing motor and cognitive functions and, ultimately, improving the quality of life in older adults. Ethical Considerations The present study was conducted after confirmation and receiving the code of ethics (IR.UI.REC.1403.142) from the Scientific Research Committee of the University of Isfahan. Authors’ Contributions Conceptualization: The second and third authors Data Collection: The first author Data Analysis: The fourth author Manuscript Writing: The first author Review and Editing: Second and fourth authors Responsible for funding: [Not specified in original] Literature Review: The first, second, and third authors Project Manager: Second author Any other Contributions: [Not specified in original] Conflict of Interest No conflict of interest has been declared by the authors. Acknowledgments This article is extracted from a doctoral dissertation. We sincerely thank the elderly women who took part in this study.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4823_0f089a3bcf38d052f7882d12b3923a82.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 18 64 2026 06 22 The Effect of Age-Based Stereotype Activation on Functional Balance in Older Adults: The Mediating Role of Cognitive Control Resources The Effect of Age-Based Stereotype Activation on Functional Balance in Older Adults: The Mediating Role of Cognitive Control Resources 135 155 5011 10.22089/mbj.2026.18837.2248 FA Zakieh Alinaghipour Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran 0009-0000-1040-0807 Hamid Salehi Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran 0000-0002-5921-6602 Seyyed Mohammadreza Mousavi Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran 0000-0003-4985-1706 Journal Article 2025 11 22 Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Population aging poses a significant public health challenge, with functional balance playing a crucial role in the mobility, independence, and quality of life of older adults. Balance is a complex skill that depends not only on sensory and motor systems but also on cognitive and psychological processes. Recent research highlights the influence of age-based stereotypes (ABS) on older adults' performance, particularly through the mechanism of stereotype threat (ST). When negative ABS are activated, older adults may experience anxiety and increased self-monitoring, leading to performance decrements. However, empirical findings regarding the effects of stereotype threat on balance performance remain inconsistent (e.g., Barber & Mather, 2014; Borel et al., 2024). According to the integrated stereotype threat model (Schmader et al., 2008), stereotype activation consumes cognitive control resources that are otherwise required for effective task execution. Because functional balance—especially in complex tasks—relies on attentional control, working memory, and self-regulation, depletion of these resources may impair postural stability. Despite strong theoretical support, the mediating role of cognitive control resources in the relationship between ABS activation and functional balance has not been directly examined. The present study addresses this gap by investigating whether cognitive control resources mediate the effects of positive and negative age stereotypes on older adults' functional balance using a cognitively demanding balance task. Methods This experimental study investigated the effects of ABS on functional balance and cognitive control in older women. The sample consisted of 51 community-dwelling women aged 60 to 76 years (M = 65.92, SD = 3.78), all of whom demonstrated healthy cognitive functioning. At baseline, participants completed the Brief Ageing Perceptions Questionnaire and the Perceived Importance of Physical Activity for Older Adults. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three ABS conditions: positive, negative, or nullified groups. Prior to task performance, individuals in the experimental groups were exposed to standardized written and verbal instructions designed to activate either positive or negative ABS. The positive ABS condition emphasized the accumulated motor experience of older adults and the preservation of physical abilities, whereas the negative ABS condition highlighted age-related physical decline and explicit comparisons with younger adults. The nullified control group received no information, either implicit or explicit, about ABS. Functional balance was assessed both before (T1) and after (T2) ABS activation using an advanced version of the Square Stepping Exercise (SSE; Shigematsu & Okura, 2006). This task required participants to execute a predefined sequence of multidirectional steps as quickly and accurately as possible. It was selected due to its sensitivity to motor coordination and executive control demands (see Fig. 1). Cognitive control was evaluated using a computerized Stroop task (Stroop, 1935), with reaction times for congruent and incongruent stimuli recorded at both measurement points. The effectiveness of the ABS manipulation was verified using a brief two-item manipulation check questionnaire. Statistical analyses included univariate analyses of variance (ANOVAs) to examine group differences in demographic variables, baseline psychological characteristics, and manipulation-check responses. Changes in functional balance and Stroop performance were analyzed using a 3 (ABS condition: positive, negative, control) × 2 (time: pre-test, post-test) mixed-design ANOVA. Mediation analyses were conducted using the PROCESS macro (Model 4; version 5; Hayes, 2022), with bootstrap resampling, to estimate indirect effects and corresponding confidence intervals. Fig 1. The advanced sequential stepping pattern used to assess functional balance, adapted from Shigematsu and Okura (2006). Cognitive control was evaluated using a computerized Stroop task (Stroop, 1935), with reaction times for congruent and incongruent stimuli recorded at both measurement points. The effectiveness of the ABS manipulation was verified using a brief two-item manipulation check questionnaire. Statistical analyses included univariate analyses of variance (ANOVAs) to examine group differences in demographic variables, baseline psychological characteristics, and manipulation-check responses. Changes in functional balance and Stroop performance were analyzed using a 3 (ABS condition: positive, negative, control) × 2 (time: pre-test, post-test) mixed-design ANOVA. Mediation analyses were conducted using the PROCESS macro (Model 4; version 5; Hayes, 2022), with bootstrap resampling, to estimate indirect effects and corresponding confidence intervals. Results The manipulation check confirmed that ABS activations were effective. Effects of ABS on Functional Balance and Stroop Reaction Time For functional balance, the results revealed significant main effects of ABS condition, F(2, 48) = 20.54, p < .001, η²ₚ = .46, and time, F(1, 48) = 35.77, p < .001, η²ₚ = .43, as well as a significant interaction, F(2, 48) = 61.32, p < .001, η²ₚ = .72. No significant differences were observed between groups at pre-test (T1). At post-test (T2), however, participants in the negative ABS condition showed significantly slower SSE times compared to both the control group (t = 7.91, p < .001) and the positive ABS group (t = 10.76, p < .001). No significant difference emerged between the positive ABS and control groups (p = .08). Within-group comparisons indicated that SSE times increased significantly from T1 to T2 in the negative ABS group (t = 11.75, p < .001) and decreased in the positive ABS group (t = 3.81, p = .005), whereas the control group showed no significant change (see Fig. 2). Stroop reaction times followed a similar pattern. At T2, negative ABS participants responded significantly slower than both the control (Mean Difference = 311.29, SE = 39.01, t = 7.98, p < .001) and positive ABS groups (Mean Difference = 381.88, SE = 39.01, t = 9.79, p < .001). In contrast, no difference was observed between the positive ABS and control groups (p > .05). Within-group analyses confirmed that Stroop RT increased from T1 to T2 under negative ABS (t = 10.48, p < .001) and decreased under positive ABS (t = 3.37, p = .02). Mediation Analysis Mediation analyses tested whether Stroop RT at T2 mediated the effect of ABS activation on SSE performance at T2. The results showed that negative ABS predicted longer Stroop RT (Path a: B = –190.94, p < .001), which, in turn, predicted slower SSE times (Path b: B = –0.08, p = .01). The direct effect of ABS on SSE time remained significant when controlling for Stroop RT (Path cʹ: B = –36.04, p < .001), indicating partial mediation. The Sobel test (z = 2.46, p = .01) and bootstrap analyses (5,000 resamples) confirmed the significance of the indirect effect (B = –15.99, 95% BCa CI [–30.05, –2.53]; see Fig. 3). Overall, the results indicated that age-based stereotypes can alter functional balance and cognitive control in older women, with partial mediation by the depletion of cognitive control resources, thereby underscoring the cognitive mechanisms that underlie stereotype-related declines in functional balance. Fig 2. Mean functional balance time at pretest (T1) and post ABS activation (T2). Note. Lower values indicate better functional balance. Error bars represent ±1 standard error of the mean (SE). ✶✶✶p <.001 for between-group differences at T2; p <.01 and p <.001 for significant changes from T1 to T2. Stroop reaction times followed a similar pattern. At T2, negative ABS participants responded significantly slower than both the control (Mean Difference = 311.29, SE = 39.01, t = 7.98, p <.001) and positive ABS groups (Mean Difference = 381.88, SE = 39.01, t = 9.79, p <.001). In contrast, no difference was observed between the positive ABS and control groups (p >.05). Within-group analyses confirmed that Stroop RT increased from T1 to T2 under negative ABS (t = 10.48, p <.001) and decreased under positive ABS (t = 3.37, p =.02). Mediation Analysis Mediation analyses tested whether Stroop RT at T2 mediated the effect of ABS activation on SSE performance at T2. The results showed that negative ABS predicted longer Stroop RT (Path a: B = –190.94, p <.001), which, in turn, predicted slower SSE times (Path b: B = –0.08, p =.01). The direct effect of ABS on SSE time remained significant when controlling for Stroop RT (Path cʹ: B = –36.04, p <.001), indicating partial mediation. The Sobel test (z = 2.46, p =.01) and bootstrap analyses (5,000 resamples) confirmed the significance of the indirect effect (B = –15.99, 95% BCa CI [–30.05, –2.53]; see Fig. 3). Fig 3. Mediation model depicting the effect of ABS activation (X) on functional balance time (Y), with Stroop reaction time (Stroop-RT) as the mediator (M). Note. ABS was coded as follows: negative = −1, control = 0, positive = +1. Path coefficients reflect unstandardized regression weights; standard errors are shown in parentheses. **p <.001, *p <.01 Overall, the results indicated that age-based stereotypes can alter functional balance and cognitive control in older women, with partial mediation by the depletion of cognitive control resources, thereby underscoring the cognitive mechanisms that underlie stereotype-related declines in functional balance. Conclusion The present findings highlight the central role of age-based stereotypes in shaping functional balance through their impact on cognitive control processes. Rather than reflecting purely biomechanical decline, the observed balance impairments under negative stereotype activation appear to stem from increased cognitive and emotional load. Consistent with self-control and stereotype threat frameworks, negative age cues likely intensified self-monitoring and evaluative concern, thereby diverting limited cognitive resources away from the coordination and planning demands of complex gait. This interpretation is supported by the mediating role of Stroop reaction time, suggesting that depletion of cognitive control constitutes a key mechanism linking stereotype threat to motor instability. Conversely, positive stereotype activation may have reduced perceived task threat and freed regulatory resources, allowing more automatic and efficient motor execution. The fact that stereotype effects emerged primarily in a cognitively demanding stepping task further underscores the importance of task complexity in revealing stereotype-related motor costs. Collectively, these findings suggest that age-related motor vulnerability is not fixed but context-sensitive, and that modifying the evaluative climate may represent a powerful yet underutilized avenue for preserving balance and mobility in older adulthood. Article Message This study demonstrates that age-related attitudes extend beyond social beliefs to directly influence cognitive efficiency and motor performance in older adults. Negative attitudes appear to deplete cognitive resources and disrupt balance control, whereas positive attitudes facilitate both cognitive and motor functioning. These findings underscore the significance of supportive environments, age-appropriate messaging, and age-sensitive educational and rehabilitative interventions. Critically, the results suggest that fostering positive beliefs about aging may reduce cognitive–motor vulnerability and promote a more confident and adaptive aging experience. Ethical Considerations The Ethics Committee of the University of Isfahan approved the study protocol. https://ethics.research.ac.ir/form/ker6pgt1l9a2eed9.pdf Authors' Contributions Literature review: Zakieh Alinaghipour, Hamid Salehi, and Seyyed Mohammad Reza Mousavi Project manager: Hamid Salehi Ideation: Hamid Salehi Data collection: Zakieh Alinaghipour Data analysis: Zakieh Alinaghipour, Hamid Salehi Initial writing: Zakieh Alinaghipour, Hamid Salehi Final review and editing: Zakieh Alinaghipour, Hamid Salehi, and Seyyed Mohammad Reza Mousavi Literature review: Zakieh Alinaghipour, Hamid Salehi, and Seyyed Mohammad Reza Mousavi Project management: Hamid Salehi Conflicts of Interest The authors report no potential conflicts of interest. Acknowledgement The authors express their sincere gratitude to the older people of Mohammad Amin Charity in Isfahan who voluntarily participated in this study. Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Population aging poses a significant public health challenge, with functional balance playing a crucial role in the mobility, independence, and quality of life of older adults. Balance is a complex skill that depends not only on sensory and motor systems but also on cognitive and psychological processes. Recent research highlights the influence of age-based stereotypes (ABS) on older adults' performance, particularly through the mechanism of stereotype threat (ST). When negative ABS are activated, older adults may experience anxiety and increased self-monitoring, leading to performance decrements. However, empirical findings regarding the effects of stereotype threat on balance performance remain inconsistent (e.g., Barber & Mather, 2014; Borel et al., 2024). According to the integrated stereotype threat model (Schmader et al., 2008), stereotype activation consumes cognitive control resources that are otherwise required for effective task execution. Because functional balance—especially in complex tasks—relies on attentional control, working memory, and self-regulation, depletion of these resources may impair postural stability. Despite strong theoretical support, the mediating role of cognitive control resources in the relationship between ABS activation and functional balance has not been directly examined. The present study addresses this gap by investigating whether cognitive control resources mediate the effects of positive and negative age stereotypes on older adults' functional balance using a cognitively demanding balance task. Methods This experimental study investigated the effects of ABS on functional balance and cognitive control in older women. The sample consisted of 51 community-dwelling women aged 60 to 76 years (M = 65.92, SD = 3.78), all of whom demonstrated healthy cognitive functioning. At baseline, participants completed the Brief Ageing Perceptions Questionnaire and the Perceived Importance of Physical Activity for Older Adults. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three ABS conditions: positive, negative, or nullified groups. Prior to task performance, individuals in the experimental groups were exposed to standardized written and verbal instructions designed to activate either positive or negative ABS. The positive ABS condition emphasized the accumulated motor experience of older adults and the preservation of physical abilities, whereas the negative ABS condition highlighted age-related physical decline and explicit comparisons with younger adults. The nullified control group received no information, either implicit or explicit, about ABS. Functional balance was assessed both before (T1) and after (T2) ABS activation using an advanced version of the Square Stepping Exercise (SSE; Shigematsu & Okura, 2006). This task required participants to execute a predefined sequence of multidirectional steps as quickly and accurately as possible. It was selected due to its sensitivity to motor coordination and executive control demands (see Fig. 1). Cognitive control was evaluated using a computerized Stroop task (Stroop, 1935), with reaction times for congruent and incongruent stimuli recorded at both measurement points. The effectiveness of the ABS manipulation was verified using a brief two-item manipulation check questionnaire. Statistical analyses included univariate analyses of variance (ANOVAs) to examine group differences in demographic variables, baseline psychological characteristics, and manipulation-check responses. Changes in functional balance and Stroop performance were analyzed using a 3 (ABS condition: positive, negative, control) × 2 (time: pre-test, post-test) mixed-design ANOVA. Mediation analyses were conducted using the PROCESS macro (Model 4; version 5; Hayes, 2022), with bootstrap resampling, to estimate indirect effects and corresponding confidence intervals. Fig 1. The advanced sequential stepping pattern used to assess functional balance, adapted from Shigematsu and Okura (2006). Cognitive control was evaluated using a computerized Stroop task (Stroop, 1935), with reaction times for congruent and incongruent stimuli recorded at both measurement points. The effectiveness of the ABS manipulation was verified using a brief two-item manipulation check questionnaire. Statistical analyses included univariate analyses of variance (ANOVAs) to examine group differences in demographic variables, baseline psychological characteristics, and manipulation-check responses. Changes in functional balance and Stroop performance were analyzed using a 3 (ABS condition: positive, negative, control) × 2 (time: pre-test, post-test) mixed-design ANOVA. Mediation analyses were conducted using the PROCESS macro (Model 4; version 5; Hayes, 2022), with bootstrap resampling, to estimate indirect effects and corresponding confidence intervals. Results The manipulation check confirmed that ABS activations were effective. Effects of ABS on Functional Balance and Stroop Reaction Time For functional balance, the results revealed significant main effects of ABS condition, F(2, 48) = 20.54, p < .001, η²ₚ = .46, and time, F(1, 48) = 35.77, p < .001, η²ₚ = .43, as well as a significant interaction, F(2, 48) = 61.32, p < .001, η²ₚ = .72. No significant differences were observed between groups at pre-test (T1). At post-test (T2), however, participants in the negative ABS condition showed significantly slower SSE times compared to both the control group (t = 7.91, p < .001) and the positive ABS group (t = 10.76, p < .001). No significant difference emerged between the positive ABS and control groups (p = .08). Within-group comparisons indicated that SSE times increased significantly from T1 to T2 in the negative ABS group (t = 11.75, p < .001) and decreased in the positive ABS group (t = 3.81, p = .005), whereas the control group showed no significant change (see Fig. 2). Stroop reaction times followed a similar pattern. At T2, negative ABS participants responded significantly slower than both the control (Mean Difference = 311.29, SE = 39.01, t = 7.98, p < .001) and positive ABS groups (Mean Difference = 381.88, SE = 39.01, t = 9.79, p < .001). In contrast, no difference was observed between the positive ABS and control groups (p > .05). Within-group analyses confirmed that Stroop RT increased from T1 to T2 under negative ABS (t = 10.48, p < .001) and decreased under positive ABS (t = 3.37, p = .02). Mediation Analysis Mediation analyses tested whether Stroop RT at T2 mediated the effect of ABS activation on SSE performance at T2. The results showed that negative ABS predicted longer Stroop RT (Path a: B = –190.94, p < .001), which, in turn, predicted slower SSE times (Path b: B = –0.08, p = .01). The direct effect of ABS on SSE time remained significant when controlling for Stroop RT (Path cʹ: B = –36.04, p < .001), indicating partial mediation. The Sobel test (z = 2.46, p = .01) and bootstrap analyses (5,000 resamples) confirmed the significance of the indirect effect (B = –15.99, 95% BCa CI [–30.05, –2.53]; see Fig. 3). Overall, the results indicated that age-based stereotypes can alter functional balance and cognitive control in older women, with partial mediation by the depletion of cognitive control resources, thereby underscoring the cognitive mechanisms that underlie stereotype-related declines in functional balance. Fig 2. Mean functional balance time at pretest (T1) and post ABS activation (T2). Note. Lower values indicate better functional balance. Error bars represent ±1 standard error of the mean (SE). ✶✶✶p <.001 for between-group differences at T2; p <.01 and p <.001 for significant changes from T1 to T2. Stroop reaction times followed a similar pattern. At T2, negative ABS participants responded significantly slower than both the control (Mean Difference = 311.29, SE = 39.01, t = 7.98, p <.001) and positive ABS groups (Mean Difference = 381.88, SE = 39.01, t = 9.79, p <.001). In contrast, no difference was observed between the positive ABS and control groups (p >.05). Within-group analyses confirmed that Stroop RT increased from T1 to T2 under negative ABS (t = 10.48, p <.001) and decreased under positive ABS (t = 3.37, p =.02). Mediation Analysis Mediation analyses tested whether Stroop RT at T2 mediated the effect of ABS activation on SSE performance at T2. The results showed that negative ABS predicted longer Stroop RT (Path a: B = –190.94, p <.001), which, in turn, predicted slower SSE times (Path b: B = –0.08, p =.01). The direct effect of ABS on SSE time remained significant when controlling for Stroop RT (Path cʹ: B = –36.04, p <.001), indicating partial mediation. The Sobel test (z = 2.46, p =.01) and bootstrap analyses (5,000 resamples) confirmed the significance of the indirect effect (B = –15.99, 95% BCa CI [–30.05, –2.53]; see Fig. 3). Fig 3. Mediation model depicting the effect of ABS activation (X) on functional balance time (Y), with Stroop reaction time (Stroop-RT) as the mediator (M). Note. ABS was coded as follows: negative = −1, control = 0, positive = +1. Path coefficients reflect unstandardized regression weights; standard errors are shown in parentheses. **p <.001, *p <.01 Overall, the results indicated that age-based stereotypes can alter functional balance and cognitive control in older women, with partial mediation by the depletion of cognitive control resources, thereby underscoring the cognitive mechanisms that underlie stereotype-related declines in functional balance. Conclusion The present findings highlight the central role of age-based stereotypes in shaping functional balance through their impact on cognitive control processes. Rather than reflecting purely biomechanical decline, the observed balance impairments under negative stereotype activation appear to stem from increased cognitive and emotional load. Consistent with self-control and stereotype threat frameworks, negative age cues likely intensified self-monitoring and evaluative concern, thereby diverting limited cognitive resources away from the coordination and planning demands of complex gait. This interpretation is supported by the mediating role of Stroop reaction time, suggesting that depletion of cognitive control constitutes a key mechanism linking stereotype threat to motor instability. Conversely, positive stereotype activation may have reduced perceived task threat and freed regulatory resources, allowing more automatic and efficient motor execution. The fact that stereotype effects emerged primarily in a cognitively demanding stepping task further underscores the importance of task complexity in revealing stereotype-related motor costs. Collectively, these findings suggest that age-related motor vulnerability is not fixed but context-sensitive, and that modifying the evaluative climate may represent a powerful yet underutilized avenue for preserving balance and mobility in older adulthood. Article Message This study demonstrates that age-related attitudes extend beyond social beliefs to directly influence cognitive efficiency and motor performance in older adults. Negative attitudes appear to deplete cognitive resources and disrupt balance control, whereas positive attitudes facilitate both cognitive and motor functioning. These findings underscore the significance of supportive environments, age-appropriate messaging, and age-sensitive educational and rehabilitative interventions. Critically, the results suggest that fostering positive beliefs about aging may reduce cognitive–motor vulnerability and promote a more confident and adaptive aging experience. Ethical Considerations The Ethics Committee of the University of Isfahan approved the study protocol. https://ethics.research.ac.ir/form/ker6pgt1l9a2eed9.pdf Authors' Contributions Literature review: Zakieh Alinaghipour, Hamid Salehi, and Seyyed Mohammad Reza Mousavi Project manager: Hamid Salehi Ideation: Hamid Salehi Data collection: Zakieh Alinaghipour Data analysis: Zakieh Alinaghipour, Hamid Salehi Initial writing: Zakieh Alinaghipour, Hamid Salehi Final review and editing: Zakieh Alinaghipour, Hamid Salehi, and Seyyed Mohammad Reza Mousavi Literature review: Zakieh Alinaghipour, Hamid Salehi, and Seyyed Mohammad Reza Mousavi Project management: Hamid Salehi Conflicts of Interest The authors report no potential conflicts of interest. Acknowledgement The authors express their sincere gratitude to the older people of Mohammad Amin Charity in Isfahan who voluntarily participated in this study.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_5011_0342c9a7b54450830e9727b98f8e3cb7.pdf

Sport Sciences Research Institute Motor Behavior 2538-273X 18 64 2026 06 22 The Effects of Calisthenics Versus Conventional Resistance Training on Exercise Adherence Motivation in Women The Effects of Calisthenics Versus Conventional Resistance Training on Exercise Adherence Motivation in Women 63 85 5015 10.22089/mbj.2026.18453.2232 FA Behnaz Pour Hemmat Department of Motor Behaviour and Sport Psychology, Isf.C., Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran. 0009-0007-1298-2207 Zahra Serjuei Department of Motor Behaviour and Sport Psychology, Isf.C., Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran. 0000-0001-9510-3958 Journal Article 2025 08 31 Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Physical activity and regular exercise are among the most effective components of a healthy lifestyle, contributing significantly to both physical and psychological well-being. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that adults engage in at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity activity per week to reap health benefits. Despite these benefits, sedentary behavior remains a major public health concern, particularly among women, who face cultural, social, and logistical barriers that limit their participation in exercise. In Iran, women encounter additional challenges due to cultural and social norms, limited dedicated spaces, and family obligations. Motivation plays a critical role in sustaining engagement in physical activity, with intrinsic motivation being especially important for long-term adherence. According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), fulfilling the basic psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness enhances autonomous motivation and promotes consistent exercise behavior. Exercise programs that are varied, challenging, and enjoyable are more likely to foster intrinsic motivation and adherence. Among these, calisthenics, which utilizes bodyweight movements, and conventional resistance training have shown potential to improve physical fitness and enhance motivation. This study aimed to compare the effects of calisthenics and conventional resistance training on sports participation motivation and its dimensions among overweight middle-aged women. Methods A quasi-experimental study with a pre-test–post-test design and two intervention groups was conducted to examine the effects of calisthenics and conventional resistance training on motivation and exercise adherence in overweight middle-aged women. The study population consisted of women aged 30–40 years with a body mass index (BMI) between 25 and 30, who regularly attended sports clubs in Isfahan in 2024 (1403). Sixty participants were purposefully recruited based on their willingness to participate and were randomly assigned to either the calisthenics group (n = 30) or the conventional resistance training group (n = 30). Eligibility criteria included general good health, no history of cardiovascular or musculoskeletal disorders, and no regular engagement in resistance training over the past six months. Participants with more than three absences during the intervention were excluded. Both groups completed an eight-week exercise program comprising three 75-minute sessions per week. Each session included a 10–15-minute warm-up, 45–50 minutes of main exercise, and 5–10 minutes of cool-down. Calisthenics sessions involved bodyweight exercises such as push-ups, squats, lunges, planks, pull-ups, and dips. Exercise intensity was controlled at 55–70% of heart rate reserve (HRR, based on the Karvonen formula), with progressive overload applied approximately every two weeks (5% increase) to ensure continual adaptation. The resistance training group performed structured exercises using free weights and resistance machines, targeting major muscle groups including chest, back, arms, and legs, with intensity matched to the calisthenics group (55–70% of 1RM or target repetitions). All sessions were supervised by the researcher and a specialist coach with a master's degree and over five years of experience. Motivation was assessed using the validated Iranian version of the Sports Participation Motivation Questionnaire (PMQ), comprising 30 items and 8 subdimensions related to intrinsic and extrinsic factors, with Cronbach's alpha reliability ranging from 0.78 to 0.86. Anthropometric measures, including height (using SECA stadiometer, 0.1 cm precision), weight (using SECA scale, 0.1 kg precision), and BMI, were recorded using standardized procedures. Pre-test measurements were taken before the intervention, and post-test assessments were conducted immediately after the eight-week program. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics to summarize participant characteristics, paired t-tests for within-group comparisons, Kolmogorov–Smirnov for normality, and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with pre-test as covariate, checking assumptions of homogeneity of slopes and variances to examine between-group differences. Bonferroni post hoc tests were used for adjusted mean comparisons. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05, and effect sizes (partial eta squared, η²) were calculated to determine the magnitude of observed differences. All analyses were performed using SPSS version 26. Results Both intervention groups exhibited significant improvements in overall sports participation motivation as well as across all subdimensions following the eight-week intervention (p < 0.001). In the calisthenics group, the mean motivation score increased from 52.10 ± 6.85 at pre-test to 76.66 ± 6.25 at post-test (t (29) = -34.10, p < 0.001). In the resistance training group, the mean motivation score increased from 52.13 ± 7.38 to 68.43 ± 7.95 (t (29) = -34.49, p < 0.001). Paired t-tests indicated statistically significant within-group improvements in all subdimensions, including achievement (calisthenics: t = -11.36; resistance: t = -11.93), group orientation (calisthenics: t = -11.35; resistance: t = -16.90), readiness (calisthenics: t = -11.42; resistance: t = -4.22), energy release (calisthenics: t = -21.91; resistance: t = -18.49), situational factors (calisthenics: t = -12.24; resistance: t = -6.43), skill improvement (calisthenics: t = -33.65; resistance: t = -10.49), friendship (calisthenics: t = -15.12; resistance: t = -12.28), and recreation (calisthenics: t = -35.32; resistance: t = -11.61) (all p < 0.001). These results demonstrate that both types of training effectively enhanced motivational outcomes, with calisthenics producing more pronounced gains. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) controlling for pre-test scores revealed that post-test motivation was significantly higher in the calisthenics group compared to the resistance training group (F (1,56) = 48.205, p < 0.001, η² = 0.491, power = 1.000). Adjusted mean difference: calisthenics 75.97 vs. resistance 69.13 (p < 0.001). Effect size estimates indicated that calisthenics improved overall motivation by approximately 49% more than conventional resistance training. Subdimension effect sizes favored calisthenics as follows: achievement (F = 6.120, p = 0.017, η² = 0.109, power = 0.679), group orientation (F = 2.473, p = 0.047, η² = 0.047, power = 0.338), readiness (F = 8.648, p = 0.005, η² = 0.147, power = 0.822), energy release (F = 4.921, p = 0.031, η² = 0.090, power = 0.585), situational factors (F = 4.692, p = 0.035, η² = 0.086, power = 0.565), skill improvement (F = 19.780, p = 0.001, η² = 0.283, power = 0.992), friendship (F = 10.980, p = 0.002, η² = 0.180, power = 0.901), and recreation (F = 5.066, p = 0.029, η² = 0.092, power = 0.598). Bonferroni post hoc analysis confirmed that all adjusted mean differences between groups were statistically significant (p < 0.05). Table 1 provides a detailed summary of pre- and post-test scores for both intervention groups. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the line chart comparisons of pre- and post-test motivation scores for the calisthenics and resistance training groups, respectively, showing a steeper upward trajectory for the calisthenics group across all subdimensions. Overall, the results indicate that while both calisthenics and conventional resistance training significantly increase sports participation motivation, calisthenics offers greater improvements across all measured dimensions with adequate statistical power. These outcomes suggest that the dynamic, bodyweight-based, and group-oriented nature of calisthenics may contribute to more substantial gains in intrinsic motivation and adherence potential. Such evidence supports the implementation of calisthenics-based interventions in programs targeting overweight middle-aged women, particularly when the aim is to maximize sustained engagement in physical activity. Table 1. Pre- and post-test motivation scores Variable Calisthenics Pre-test Calisthenics Post-test Resistance Training Pre-test Resistance Training Post-test Motivation 52.10 ± 6.85 76.66 ± 6.25 52.13 ± 7.38 68.43 ± 7.95 Achievement 10.36 ± 2.47 14.10 ± 2.78 9.83 ± 2.85 12.13 ± 2.59 Group orientation 4.50 ± 1.07 7.26 ± 1.53 5.23 ± 1.43 6.90 ± 1.34 Readiness 5.80 ± 1.44 8.63 ± 0.92 6.10 ± 1.15 7.40 ± 1.90 Energy release 9.33 ± 1.49 12.50 ± 1.54 9.10 ± 1.74 11.70 ± 2.00 Situational factors 5.30 ± 1.20 7.90 ± 0.95 6.00 ± 1.17 7.40 ± 1.22 Skill improvement 5.63 ± 0.76 8.46 ± 0.86 4.83 ± 1.23 7.06 ± 1.33 Friendship 5.83 ± 1.48 9.36 ± 1.63 5.40 ± 1.45 7.80 ± 1.24 Recreation 5.33 ± 0.84 8.43 ± 0.77 5.63 ± 1.21 8.03 ± 1.06 Conclusion This study demonstrated that both calisthenics and conventional resistance training significantly enhance sports participation motivation among overweight middle-aged women (p < 0.001). Notably, calisthenics led to greater improvements across all motivation subdimensions (ANCOVA: F up to 48.205, p < 0.001, η² up to 0.491), likely due to its intrinsic characteristics, including bodyweight-based movements, dynamic exercise variety, group-oriented sessions, and progressive challenges. These features effectively satisfy the psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness, thereby fostering intrinsic motivation and promoting sustained exercise adherence. The findings highlight calisthenics as a practical, low-cost, and engaging intervention for female exercisers seeking to improve both physical fitness and long-term participation. Incorporating diverse, socially interactive, and adaptable programs into training regimes can further enhance motivation, reduce common participation barriers, and support overall well-being. Future research should explore long-term effects, hybrid training approaches, and qualitative experiences to deepen understanding of motivational mechanisms, providing more comprehensive guidance for designing effective exercise programs tailored to women's needs. Article Message This study demonstrates that calisthenics training is significantly more effective than conventional resistance training in enhancing exercise motivation and adherence among overweight middle-aged women. The bodyweight-based, varied, and socially interactive nature of calisthenics better satisfies fundamental psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness, leading to stronger intrinsic motivation. These findings support implementing calisthenics as a practical, cost-effective strategy to promote long-term physical activity participation in women, addressing key barriers to exercise adherence. Fitness professionals should consider incorporating calisthenics into women's exercise programming to maximize sustained engagement and overall well-being. Ethical Considerations This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Islamic Azad University, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch (Code: IR.IAU.KHUISF.REC.1403.356). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. Data were anonymized and handled confidentially. Participants could withdraw at any time without penalty. Authors' Contributions Behnaz Pour Hemmat and Zahra Serjuei conceptualized the study. Data collection was conducted by both authors. Data analysis was performed by Behnaz Pour Hemmat and Zahra Serjuei. Manuscript drafting was carried out by both authors. Review and editing were undertaken by Behnaz Pour Hemmat and Zahra Serjuei. Literature review was conducted collaboratively. Project administration was led by Zahra Serjuei Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank all participants and the sports facilities in Isfahan for their cooperation and support. Extended Abstract Background and Purpose Physical activity and regular exercise are among the most effective components of a healthy lifestyle, contributing significantly to both physical and psychological well-being. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that adults engage in at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity activity per week to reap health benefits. Despite these benefits, sedentary behavior remains a major public health concern, particularly among women, who face cultural, social, and logistical barriers that limit their participation in exercise. In Iran, women encounter additional challenges due to cultural and social norms, limited dedicated spaces, and family obligations. Motivation plays a critical role in sustaining engagement in physical activity, with intrinsic motivation being especially important for long-term adherence. According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), fulfilling the basic psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness enhances autonomous motivation and promotes consistent exercise behavior. Exercise programs that are varied, challenging, and enjoyable are more likely to foster intrinsic motivation and adherence. Among these, calisthenics, which utilizes bodyweight movements, and conventional resistance training have shown potential to improve physical fitness and enhance motivation. This study aimed to compare the effects of calisthenics and conventional resistance training on sports participation motivation and its dimensions among overweight middle-aged women. Methods A quasi-experimental study with a pre-test–post-test design and two intervention groups was conducted to examine the effects of calisthenics and conventional resistance training on motivation and exercise adherence in overweight middle-aged women. The study population consisted of women aged 30–40 years with a body mass index (BMI) between 25 and 30, who regularly attended sports clubs in Isfahan in 2024 (1403). Sixty participants were purposefully recruited based on their willingness to participate and were randomly assigned to either the calisthenics group (n = 30) or the conventional resistance training group (n = 30). Eligibility criteria included general good health, no history of cardiovascular or musculoskeletal disorders, and no regular engagement in resistance training over the past six months. Participants with more than three absences during the intervention were excluded. Both groups completed an eight-week exercise program comprising three 75-minute sessions per week. Each session included a 10–15-minute warm-up, 45–50 minutes of main exercise, and 5–10 minutes of cool-down. Calisthenics sessions involved bodyweight exercises such as push-ups, squats, lunges, planks, pull-ups, and dips. Exercise intensity was controlled at 55–70% of heart rate reserve (HRR, based on the Karvonen formula), with progressive overload applied approximately every two weeks (5% increase) to ensure continual adaptation. The resistance training group performed structured exercises using free weights and resistance machines, targeting major muscle groups including chest, back, arms, and legs, with intensity matched to the calisthenics group (55–70% of 1RM or target repetitions). All sessions were supervised by the researcher and a specialist coach with a master's degree and over five years of experience. Motivation was assessed using the validated Iranian version of the Sports Participation Motivation Questionnaire (PMQ), comprising 30 items and 8 subdimensions related to intrinsic and extrinsic factors, with Cronbach's alpha reliability ranging from 0.78 to 0.86. Anthropometric measures, including height (using SECA stadiometer, 0.1 cm precision), weight (using SECA scale, 0.1 kg precision), and BMI, were recorded using standardized procedures. Pre-test measurements were taken before the intervention, and post-test assessments were conducted immediately after the eight-week program. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics to summarize participant characteristics, paired t-tests for within-group comparisons, Kolmogorov–Smirnov for normality, and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with pre-test as covariate, checking assumptions of homogeneity of slopes and variances to examine between-group differences. Bonferroni post hoc tests were used for adjusted mean comparisons. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05, and effect sizes (partial eta squared, η²) were calculated to determine the magnitude of observed differences. All analyses were performed using SPSS version 26. Results Both intervention groups exhibited significant improvements in overall sports participation motivation as well as across all subdimensions following the eight-week intervention (p < 0.001). In the calisthenics group, the mean motivation score increased from 52.10 ± 6.85 at pre-test to 76.66 ± 6.25 at post-test (t (29) = -34.10, p < 0.001). In the resistance training group, the mean motivation score increased from 52.13 ± 7.38 to 68.43 ± 7.95 (t (29) = -34.49, p < 0.001). Paired t-tests indicated statistically significant within-group improvements in all subdimensions, including achievement (calisthenics: t = -11.36; resistance: t = -11.93), group orientation (calisthenics: t = -11.35; resistance: t = -16.90), readiness (calisthenics: t = -11.42; resistance: t = -4.22), energy release (calisthenics: t = -21.91; resistance: t = -18.49), situational factors (calisthenics: t = -12.24; resistance: t = -6.43), skill improvement (calisthenics: t = -33.65; resistance: t = -10.49), friendship (calisthenics: t = -15.12; resistance: t = -12.28), and recreation (calisthenics: t = -35.32; resistance: t = -11.61) (all p < 0.001). These results demonstrate that both types of training effectively enhanced motivational outcomes, with calisthenics producing more pronounced gains. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) controlling for pre-test scores revealed that post-test motivation was significantly higher in the calisthenics group compared to the resistance training group (F (1,56) = 48.205, p < 0.001, η² = 0.491, power = 1.000). Adjusted mean difference: calisthenics 75.97 vs. resistance 69.13 (p < 0.001). Effect size estimates indicated that calisthenics improved overall motivation by approximately 49% more than conventional resistance training. Subdimension effect sizes favored calisthenics as follows: achievement (F = 6.120, p = 0.017, η² = 0.109, power = 0.679), group orientation (F = 2.473, p = 0.047, η² = 0.047, power = 0.338), readiness (F = 8.648, p = 0.005, η² = 0.147, power = 0.822), energy release (F = 4.921, p = 0.031, η² = 0.090, power = 0.585), situational factors (F = 4.692, p = 0.035, η² = 0.086, power = 0.565), skill improvement (F = 19.780, p = 0.001, η² = 0.283, power = 0.992), friendship (F = 10.980, p = 0.002, η² = 0.180, power = 0.901), and recreation (F = 5.066, p = 0.029, η² = 0.092, power = 0.598). Bonferroni post hoc analysis confirmed that all adjusted mean differences between groups were statistically significant (p < 0.05). Table 1 provides a detailed summary of pre- and post-test scores for both intervention groups. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the line chart comparisons of pre- and post-test motivation scores for the calisthenics and resistance training groups, respectively, showing a steeper upward trajectory for the calisthenics group across all subdimensions. Overall, the results indicate that while both calisthenics and conventional resistance training significantly increase sports participation motivation, calisthenics offers greater improvements across all measured dimensions with adequate statistical power. These outcomes suggest that the dynamic, bodyweight-based, and group-oriented nature of calisthenics may contribute to more substantial gains in intrinsic motivation and adherence potential. Such evidence supports the implementation of calisthenics-based interventions in programs targeting overweight middle-aged women, particularly when the aim is to maximize sustained engagement in physical activity. Table 1. Pre- and post-test motivation scores Variable Calisthenics Pre-test Calisthenics Post-test Resistance Training Pre-test Resistance Training Post-test Motivation 52.10 ± 6.85 76.66 ± 6.25 52.13 ± 7.38 68.43 ± 7.95 Achievement 10.36 ± 2.47 14.10 ± 2.78 9.83 ± 2.85 12.13 ± 2.59 Group orientation 4.50 ± 1.07 7.26 ± 1.53 5.23 ± 1.43 6.90 ± 1.34 Readiness 5.80 ± 1.44 8.63 ± 0.92 6.10 ± 1.15 7.40 ± 1.90 Energy release 9.33 ± 1.49 12.50 ± 1.54 9.10 ± 1.74 11.70 ± 2.00 Situational factors 5.30 ± 1.20 7.90 ± 0.95 6.00 ± 1.17 7.40 ± 1.22 Skill improvement 5.63 ± 0.76 8.46 ± 0.86 4.83 ± 1.23 7.06 ± 1.33 Friendship 5.83 ± 1.48 9.36 ± 1.63 5.40 ± 1.45 7.80 ± 1.24 Recreation 5.33 ± 0.84 8.43 ± 0.77 5.63 ± 1.21 8.03 ± 1.06 Conclusion This study demonstrated that both calisthenics and conventional resistance training significantly enhance sports participation motivation among overweight middle-aged women (p < 0.001). Notably, calisthenics led to greater improvements across all motivation subdimensions (ANCOVA: F up to 48.205, p < 0.001, η² up to 0.491), likely due to its intrinsic characteristics, including bodyweight-based movements, dynamic exercise variety, group-oriented sessions, and progressive challenges. These features effectively satisfy the psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness, thereby fostering intrinsic motivation and promoting sustained exercise adherence. The findings highlight calisthenics as a practical, low-cost, and engaging intervention for female exercisers seeking to improve both physical fitness and long-term participation. Incorporating diverse, socially interactive, and adaptable programs into training regimes can further enhance motivation, reduce common participation barriers, and support overall well-being. Future research should explore long-term effects, hybrid training approaches, and qualitative experiences to deepen understanding of motivational mechanisms, providing more comprehensive guidance for designing effective exercise programs tailored to women's needs. Article Message This study demonstrates that calisthenics training is significantly more effective than conventional resistance training in enhancing exercise motivation and adherence among overweight middle-aged women. The bodyweight-based, varied, and socially interactive nature of calisthenics better satisfies fundamental psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness, leading to stronger intrinsic motivation. These findings support implementing calisthenics as a practical, cost-effective strategy to promote long-term physical activity participation in women, addressing key barriers to exercise adherence. Fitness professionals should consider incorporating calisthenics into women's exercise programming to maximize sustained engagement and overall well-being. Ethical Considerations This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Islamic Azad University, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch (Code: IR.IAU.KHUISF.REC.1403.356). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. Data were anonymized and handled confidentially. Participants could withdraw at any time without penalty. Authors' Contributions Behnaz Pour Hemmat and Zahra Serjuei conceptualized the study. Data collection was conducted by both authors. Data analysis was performed by Behnaz Pour Hemmat and Zahra Serjuei. Manuscript drafting was carried out by both authors. Review and editing were undertaken by Behnaz Pour Hemmat and Zahra Serjuei. Literature review was conducted collaboratively. Project administration was led by Zahra Serjuei Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank all participants and the sports facilities in Isfahan for their cooperation and support.

https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_5015_747c1bcceb6109a4ef936bc70cfe67de.pdf