Sport Sciences Research InstituteMotor Behavior2538-273X186520260923The Effect of Equine therapy on social indicators, Communication and Stereotyped Behaviors of Children with Autism Spectrum DisorderThe Effect of Equine therapy on social indicators, Communication and Stereotyped Behaviors of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder1739437610.22089/mbj.2024.16757.2156FAZahraMansourjozanDepartment of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran.0000-0002-6932-6645HojjatZamani SaniDepartment of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran.0000-0001-7276-5289AminHekmatmaneshDepartment of Intelligent Machines, Faculty of Technology, LUT University, Lappeenranta, Finland.Mohammad TaghiAghdasiDepartment of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran.0000-0003-0464-368XHamidrezaTaheri TorbatiDepartment of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.0000-0002-0878-604XJournal Article20240513Extended AbstractBackground and PurposeOver the past five decades, the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has risen markedly. ASD is a lifelong, intrinsic, and complex neurodevelopmental condition that affects social interactions, cognitive functions, and perceptual skills (1). Individuals diagnosed with ASD frequently present with a clinically significant and heterogeneous array of uncontrollable repetitive patterns, emotional dysregulation, and diminished verbal and non-verbal communication capacities during interpersonal exchanges, including reduced eye contact and restricted body language. These children typically encounter fundamental challenges in social interaction, interpreting social cues, establishing interpersonal relationships, joining peer groups, engaging in shared attention, imitation, and communication. Additionally, they experience difficulties in fine and gross motor skills, motor planning, coordination, static and dynamic postural control, alongside observable manifestations of aggression and hyperactivity (2, 3). ASD fundamentally impairs social interaction and interpersonal communication, giving rise to repetitive behaviors that significantly affect children's social lives with family and peers. Stereotypic behaviors can obstruct social integration, and severe behavioral difficulties may culminate in withdrawal and isolation for children with autism. Social skills encompass the abilities that facilitate effective communication and collaboration with others—including helping, initiating relationships, seeking assistance, encouraging and praising others, and expressing gratitude. Children with autism encounter substantial obstacles in these domains due to profound impairments in social interaction and communication (4). Children with ASD experience difficulties in social interactions and exhibit obsessive and repetitive behaviors that can lead to social problems, isolation, and physical harm. These behaviors, which may occur unintentionally and repetitively, are termed "stereotypies" and are associated with obsessive interests. This constellation of issues disrupts daily functioning, restricts engagement with the surrounding environment, and can precipitate aggression and physical injury to the child (5, 6). Sports and physical activity offer opportunities for group engagement. Furthermore, physical activity elevates heart rate, which may help mitigate stereotyped behaviors that interfere with learning. Consequently, physical activity has been extensively investigated as a vital component for the development of children with autism (7). The development of effective treatments for individuals with ASD has become a research priority. Among various animal-assisted therapies, equine therapy stands out as a distinctive approach incorporating the involvement of horses in specific therapeutic practices. The present study was conducted to examine the impact of equine therapy on the social interactions, communication, and repetitive behaviors of children with ASD, as discussed in the aforementioned contexts.MethodsThe present study was conducted with a specific purpose and employed a semi-experimental design utilizing a pre-test–post-test framework with a control group. Participants comprised 24 children (both boys and girls) diagnosed with ASD, aged 9 to 12 years, who were randomly assigned to either the control or experimental group. Mothers completed the Garz-2 test, which measured interaction variables related to social behavior and stereotyped behavior. The intervention for the experimental group was administered by the primary researcher under the supervision of a specialist psychiatrist. This group participated in sixteen sessions lasting 25 to 30 minutes each, characterized by varied tasks and distinct behavioral goals, conducted individually for each child. In this research, the results of the three subscales—stereotyped behavior and social interactions—from the Garz-2 test were compared in pre-test and post-test formats between the experimental and control groups. The assumption of normal distribution was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test, yielding a confidence level of (P > 0.05). For data analysis, repeated measures ANOVA and Bonferroni's post hoc test were utilized to evaluate differences between the experimental and control groups, using SPSS version 27 software.ResultsThe findings of this study indicated that equine therapy significantly impacted the social communication of the experimental group, leading to improved scores. However, no statistically significant difference was observed in the variables related to stereotyped behavior and social interaction.ConclusionIn analyzing these results, it can be concluded that stereotyped behaviors are actions occurring repetitively and associated with intense emotional discharge. The presence of horses appears to reduce both the frequency and intensity of such behaviors. According to researchers in equine therapy, this effect may help regulate autonomic nervous system functions—including blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration—thereby reducing anxiety levels, decreasing the intensity and frequency of stereotyped behaviors, and enhancing social communication (8). Equine therapy may encompass various self-regulation techniques, such as anger management, self-expression, assertiveness, emotional expression, active listening, feedback, reflection, and emotion management, along with strategies for effective interaction and communication. For instance, engagement with animals can enhance eye contact and improve communication skills in children, owing to the non-judgmental nature of this interaction (9). Animal intervention programs blend the physiological effects of stress reduction and oxytocin release with the psychological advantages of emotional support, sensory integration, and behavioral reinforcement to assist individuals with ASD (10). Given that individuals with ASD typically exhibit lower levels of the oxytocin hormone in blood plasma (11), it can be suggested that equine therapy stimulates the release of active neurochemicals—such as dopamine, serotonin, endorphins, and oxytocin—within the nervous system. This physiological response impacts overall brain metabolism, enhances mood, and subsequently increases the inclination for social communication in children with autism. The current research concludes that equine therapy, as a flexible and worthy intervention, serves as a valuable tool for understanding and communicating with children, positively influencing social communication. It is therefore recommended that child therapists and specialists incorporate equine therapy interventions alongside medical treatments to enhance social interaction. Article MessageThis study examined the effect of equine therapy on social interactions, communication, and repetitive behaviors in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Twenty-four children aged 9–12 years participated in a semi-experimental pre-test/post-test design with a control group. Results showed that equine therapy significantly improved social communication in the experimental group. However, no statistically significant differences were observed in stereotyped behaviors or social interaction variables. Equine therapy appears to regulate autonomic nervous system functions and stimulate neurochemicals such as oxytocin and dopamine, thereby reducing anxiety and enhancing mood. Although repetitive behaviors did not show significant change, the improvement in social communication supports equine therapy as a valuable complementary intervention alongside medical treatments for children with ASD.Ethical ConsiderationsThis study was approved by the Research Council of the Faculty and received ethical approval from the University Ethics Committee (Ethics Code: IR.TABRIZU.REC.1402.073).Authors' ContributionsConceptualization: Zahra Mansourjozan, Seyed Hojjat Zamani Sani, Amin Hekmatmanesh, Mohammad Taghi Aghdasi, Hamid Reza Taheri. Data Collection: Zahra Mansourjozan. Data Analysis: Zahra Mansourjozan, Seyed Hojjat Zamani Sani, Amin Hekmatmanesh, Mohammad Taghi Aghdasi, Hamid Reza Taheri. Manuscript Writing: Zahra Mansourjozan, Seyed Hojjat Zamani Sani, Amin Hekmatmanesh. Review and Editing: Zahra Mansourjozan, Seyed Hojjat Zamani Sani, Amin Hekmatmanesh, Mohammad Taghi Aghdasi, Hamid Reza Taheri. Responsible for funding: None. Literature Review: Zahra Mansourjozan, Seyed Hojjat Zamani Sani, Amin Hekmatmanesh. Project Manager: Seyed Hojjat Zamani Sani, Amin Hekmatmanesh.Conflict of InterestAccording to the authors, this article has no conflict of interest.AcknowledgmentsThis study is derived from the doctoral dissertation of the first author. We hereby express our gratitude and appreciation for the cooperation of the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, as well as the Perceptual-Motor Development and Growth Laboratory located in the Central Laboratory of the University of Tabriz, and all the participants and individuals who assisted us in conducting this research.Extended AbstractBackground and PurposeOver the past five decades, the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has risen markedly. ASD is a lifelong, intrinsic, and complex neurodevelopmental condition that affects social interactions, cognitive functions, and perceptual skills (1). Individuals diagnosed with ASD frequently present with a clinically significant and heterogeneous array of uncontrollable repetitive patterns, emotional dysregulation, and diminished verbal and non-verbal communication capacities during interpersonal exchanges, including reduced eye contact and restricted body language. These children typically encounter fundamental challenges in social interaction, interpreting social cues, establishing interpersonal relationships, joining peer groups, engaging in shared attention, imitation, and communication. Additionally, they experience difficulties in fine and gross motor skills, motor planning, coordination, static and dynamic postural control, alongside observable manifestations of aggression and hyperactivity (2, 3). ASD fundamentally impairs social interaction and interpersonal communication, giving rise to repetitive behaviors that significantly affect children's social lives with family and peers. Stereotypic behaviors can obstruct social integration, and severe behavioral difficulties may culminate in withdrawal and isolation for children with autism. Social skills encompass the abilities that facilitate effective communication and collaboration with others—including helping, initiating relationships, seeking assistance, encouraging and praising others, and expressing gratitude. Children with autism encounter substantial obstacles in these domains due to profound impairments in social interaction and communication (4). Children with ASD experience difficulties in social interactions and exhibit obsessive and repetitive behaviors that can lead to social problems, isolation, and physical harm. These behaviors, which may occur unintentionally and repetitively, are termed "stereotypies" and are associated with obsessive interests. This constellation of issues disrupts daily functioning, restricts engagement with the surrounding environment, and can precipitate aggression and physical injury to the child (5, 6). Sports and physical activity offer opportunities for group engagement. Furthermore, physical activity elevates heart rate, which may help mitigate stereotyped behaviors that interfere with learning. Consequently, physical activity has been extensively investigated as a vital component for the development of children with autism (7). The development of effective treatments for individuals with ASD has become a research priority. Among various animal-assisted therapies, equine therapy stands out as a distinctive approach incorporating the involvement of horses in specific therapeutic practices. The present study was conducted to examine the impact of equine therapy on the social interactions, communication, and repetitive behaviors of children with ASD, as discussed in the aforementioned contexts.MethodsThe present study was conducted with a specific purpose and employed a semi-experimental design utilizing a pre-test–post-test framework with a control group. Participants comprised 24 children (both boys and girls) diagnosed with ASD, aged 9 to 12 years, who were randomly assigned to either the control or experimental group. Mothers completed the Garz-2 test, which measured interaction variables related to social behavior and stereotyped behavior. The intervention for the experimental group was administered by the primary researcher under the supervision of a specialist psychiatrist. This group participated in sixteen sessions lasting 25 to 30 minutes each, characterized by varied tasks and distinct behavioral goals, conducted individually for each child. In this research, the results of the three subscales—stereotyped behavior and social interactions—from the Garz-2 test were compared in pre-test and post-test formats between the experimental and control groups. The assumption of normal distribution was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test, yielding a confidence level of (P > 0.05). For data analysis, repeated measures ANOVA and Bonferroni's post hoc test were utilized to evaluate differences between the experimental and control groups, using SPSS version 27 software.ResultsThe findings of this study indicated that equine therapy significantly impacted the social communication of the experimental group, leading to improved scores. However, no statistically significant difference was observed in the variables related to stereotyped behavior and social interaction.ConclusionIn analyzing these results, it can be concluded that stereotyped behaviors are actions occurring repetitively and associated with intense emotional discharge. The presence of horses appears to reduce both the frequency and intensity of such behaviors. According to researchers in equine therapy, this effect may help regulate autonomic nervous system functions—including blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration—thereby reducing anxiety levels, decreasing the intensity and frequency of stereotyped behaviors, and enhancing social communication (8). Equine therapy may encompass various self-regulation techniques, such as anger management, self-expression, assertiveness, emotional expression, active listening, feedback, reflection, and emotion management, along with strategies for effective interaction and communication. For instance, engagement with animals can enhance eye contact and improve communication skills in children, owing to the non-judgmental nature of this interaction (9). Animal intervention programs blend the physiological effects of stress reduction and oxytocin release with the psychological advantages of emotional support, sensory integration, and behavioral reinforcement to assist individuals with ASD (10). Given that individuals with ASD typically exhibit lower levels of the oxytocin hormone in blood plasma (11), it can be suggested that equine therapy stimulates the release of active neurochemicals—such as dopamine, serotonin, endorphins, and oxytocin—within the nervous system. This physiological response impacts overall brain metabolism, enhances mood, and subsequently increases the inclination for social communication in children with autism. The current research concludes that equine therapy, as a flexible and worthy intervention, serves as a valuable tool for understanding and communicating with children, positively influencing social communication. It is therefore recommended that child therapists and specialists incorporate equine therapy interventions alongside medical treatments to enhance social interaction. Article MessageThis study examined the effect of equine therapy on social interactions, communication, and repetitive behaviors in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Twenty-four children aged 9–12 years participated in a semi-experimental pre-test/post-test design with a control group. Results showed that equine therapy significantly improved social communication in the experimental group. However, no statistically significant differences were observed in stereotyped behaviors or social interaction variables. Equine therapy appears to regulate autonomic nervous system functions and stimulate neurochemicals such as oxytocin and dopamine, thereby reducing anxiety and enhancing mood. Although repetitive behaviors did not show significant change, the improvement in social communication supports equine therapy as a valuable complementary intervention alongside medical treatments for children with ASD.Ethical ConsiderationsThis study was approved by the Research Council of the Faculty and received ethical approval from the University Ethics Committee (Ethics Code: IR.TABRIZU.REC.1402.073).Authors' ContributionsConceptualization: Zahra Mansourjozan, Seyed Hojjat Zamani Sani, Amin Hekmatmanesh, Mohammad Taghi Aghdasi, Hamid Reza Taheri. Data Collection: Zahra Mansourjozan. Data Analysis: Zahra Mansourjozan, Seyed Hojjat Zamani Sani, Amin Hekmatmanesh, Mohammad Taghi Aghdasi, Hamid Reza Taheri. Manuscript Writing: Zahra Mansourjozan, Seyed Hojjat Zamani Sani, Amin Hekmatmanesh. Review and Editing: Zahra Mansourjozan, Seyed Hojjat Zamani Sani, Amin Hekmatmanesh, Mohammad Taghi Aghdasi, Hamid Reza Taheri. Responsible for funding: None. Literature Review: Zahra Mansourjozan, Seyed Hojjat Zamani Sani, Amin Hekmatmanesh. Project Manager: Seyed Hojjat Zamani Sani, Amin Hekmatmanesh.Conflict of InterestAccording to the authors, this article has no conflict of interest.AcknowledgmentsThis study is derived from the doctoral dissertation of the first author. We hereby express our gratitude and appreciation for the cooperation of the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, as well as the Perceptual-Motor Development and Growth Laboratory located in the Central Laboratory of the University of Tabriz, and all the participants and individuals who assisted us in conducting this research.https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4376_789a283923884fb1c9598f796581a39d.pdfSport Sciences Research InstituteMotor Behavior2538-273X186520260923Analyzing the intellectual structure and knowledge network in the field of physical activity of the elderly in open spaces of housing: A Systematic ReviewAnalyzing the intellectual structure and knowledge network in the field of physical activity of the elderly in open spaces of housing: A Systematic Review4062514210.22089/mbj.2026.19139.2261FAZahraEivazi DamirchiDepartment of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Islamic Azad .University, Pardis Branch, Tehran, Iran0009-0008-0106-0538AmirSanaeeDepartment of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Islamic Azad .University, Pardis Branch, Tehran, Iran0000-0003-2323-4611MaryamCheshmeh GhasabaniDepartment of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Islamic Azad .University, Pardis Branch, Tehran, Iran0000-0001-6439-895XJournal Article20260218Extended AbstractBackground and PurposeThe aging population has become a serious problem, particularly in developing countries. The increase in the elderly population and the associated costs are among the most significant socio-economic and health challenges worldwide. Numerous studies in public health, urban planning, and environmental psychology have demonstrated the relationship between the physical and mental health of older adults and various aspects of the physical and social environment—specifically as this relationship pertains to the health of older adults through physical activity. Despite the significant increase in research on physical activity in recent years, no scientometric study has been conducted on this approach at the housing level, especially in neighborhood spaces. Accordingly, the present study seeks to systematically evaluate and analyze these research outputs and, in doing so, take a step toward clarifying the scientific status of this field and charting its future directions.MethodsTo collect data in this stage, a qualitative research approach, content analysis method, and systematic review with co-word analysis technique were employed. To identify high-frequency keywords, focal areas, and low-citation research fronts within this domain, a comprehensive search strategy was implemented. Scientific publications were selected in consultation with experts in architecture specializing in housing, using Boolean operators 'AND' and 'OR' in the document search section. The search was conducted across article titles, abstracts, and keywords in the Scopus electronic database, and the output was exported in CSV format. The framework and principles of this systematic review adhered to the PRISMA checklist. After applying the predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria and conducting a re-review, 176 full-text sources were included in this systematic review. The author keywords from all extracted sources were organized into a co-occurrence matrix within an Excel file and subsequently transferred to VOSviewer software (version 18.6.1). To analyze keyword co-occurrence, a threshold of two was set experimentally for author keywords in the software input. Following the removal of irrelevant terms, the remaining 83 keywords were mapped and analyzed using the co-occurrence network in the software. The findings identified 12 clusters related to the topic of older adults' physical activity in neighborhood spaces. Following the scientometric analysis (Figure 2), the most cited journals, leading countries, key variables, software, methods, and tools used in scientific productions within this field were identified according to the presented definitions.ResultsTo identify high-frequency and low-frequency keywords in the field of older adults' physical activity in neighborhood spaces, the co-word analysis method was employed. VOSviewer software identified 12 clusters by analyzing the keywords of the abstracts from 176 sources included in the systematic review. The first and second clusters, shown in red and green, consist of 14 and 10 keywords, respectively. In the first cluster, the two keywords 'neighborhood environment' and 'physical environment,' with link strengths of 25 and 22 respectively, ranked among the most frequent keywords. In the second cluster, 'elderly' and 'GPS,' with total link strengths of 28 and 25, were the most frequent keywords.Scientific production in this field followed an upward trend from 2000 to 2016 and a downward trend from 2017 to 2019. In 2020 and 2021, production resumed an upward trajectory, followed by a significant decline from 2021 onward, as illustrated in Figure 4. The countries that have contributed to this research domain were also examined and analyzed. The leading positions in scientific production belonged to the United States and China, with 34 and 32 sources, respectively. Canada and Japan ranked third and fourth, with 15 and 14 scientific productions.Among the methods used in the studies included in the systematic analysis, descriptive and correlational methods were the most frequently employed, with frequencies of 161 and 135, respectively. Following these, the survey-cross-sectional method ranked third. The pretest-posttest method ranked lowest, being used in only two articles. The findings indicated that the use of questionnaires, employed in 114 scientific publications, ranked highest among the tools for measuring older adults' physical activity in residential settings. The interview technique was the second most frequent tool, with a frequency of 93.The variables density, green space, aesthetics, and street connectivity were among the most frequent variables, with frequencies of 98, 97, 67, 65, and 55, respectively. The variables geometry, complexity, scalability, and orientation ranked lowest, each with a frequency of one. SPSS software was the most widely used software, employed in 57 scientific productions. Stata software ranked second, with a frequency of 28. The lowest ranks belonged to MPlus and AtlasTi software, each with a frequency of two.ConclusionThe results of this study indicate a significant research gap in studies related to the application of artificial intelligence, physical activity measurement tools, and built environment components within this domain. The findings underscore the necessity of expanding interdisciplinary research and strengthening scientific collaborations between Iran and both developed and developing countries in future studies. It is noteworthy that relying on a single database presents a limitation; focusing exclusively on Scopus may have reduced the scope of data coverage. Therefore, employing additional databases such as Web of Science and PubMed is recommended for future research.Overall, the findings of this review can serve as a guide for researchers in identifying priority research areas, reputable journals, and prominent authors for publishing articles or developing scientific collaborations. Furthermore, these results provide a more comprehensive understanding of the position of physical activity among older adults in the context of residential open spaces by offering a clearer articulation of research trends and highlighting emerging research issues.Article MessageThe results of this study highlight a substantial research gap in the domain of artificial intelligence, physical activity measurement tools, and the built environment within this field. By offering a clearer articulation of research trends and identifying contemporary hot topics, these findings provide a comprehensive picture of the status of physical activity among older adults in the context of residential open spacesEthical ConsiderationsAll research ethical guidelines were observed. The study received approval from the Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, University of Islamic Azad University, Pardis Branch.Authors' ContributionsConceptualization: Zahra Eivazi Damirchi, Amir Sanaee & Maryam Cheshmeh GhsabaniData Collection: Zahra Eivazi DamirchiData Analysis: Zahra Eivazi DamirchiManuscript Writing: Zahra Eivazi DamirchiReview and Editing: Amir Sanaee & Maryam Cheshmeh GhsabaniResponsible for funding: Zahra Eivazi Damirchi, Amir Sanaee & Maryam Cheshmeh GhsabaniLiterature Review: Zahra Eivazi DamirchiProject Manager: Amir SanaeeConflict of InterestThe authors declare no conflicts of interest.AcknowledgmentsThis article is an excerpt from Zahra Eyvazi Damirchi's doctoral thesis titled "Developing an Architectural Model of Neighborhood Spaces in Residential Complexes to Increase Pedestrianization for the Elderly," which is being conducted under the guidance of Dr. Amir Sana'i and the advice of Dr. Maryam Cheshmeh Qasaban at the Faculty of Engineering, Pardis Branch, Islamic Azad UniversityExtended AbstractBackground and PurposeThe aging population has become a serious problem, particularly in developing countries. The increase in the elderly population and the associated costs are among the most significant socio-economic and health challenges worldwide. Numerous studies in public health, urban planning, and environmental psychology have demonstrated the relationship between the physical and mental health of older adults and various aspects of the physical and social environment—specifically as this relationship pertains to the health of older adults through physical activity. Despite the significant increase in research on physical activity in recent years, no scientometric study has been conducted on this approach at the housing level, especially in neighborhood spaces. Accordingly, the present study seeks to systematically evaluate and analyze these research outputs and, in doing so, take a step toward clarifying the scientific status of this field and charting its future directions.MethodsTo collect data in this stage, a qualitative research approach, content analysis method, and systematic review with co-word analysis technique were employed. To identify high-frequency keywords, focal areas, and low-citation research fronts within this domain, a comprehensive search strategy was implemented. Scientific publications were selected in consultation with experts in architecture specializing in housing, using Boolean operators 'AND' and 'OR' in the document search section. The search was conducted across article titles, abstracts, and keywords in the Scopus electronic database, and the output was exported in CSV format. The framework and principles of this systematic review adhered to the PRISMA checklist. After applying the predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria and conducting a re-review, 176 full-text sources were included in this systematic review. The author keywords from all extracted sources were organized into a co-occurrence matrix within an Excel file and subsequently transferred to VOSviewer software (version 18.6.1). To analyze keyword co-occurrence, a threshold of two was set experimentally for author keywords in the software input. Following the removal of irrelevant terms, the remaining 83 keywords were mapped and analyzed using the co-occurrence network in the software. The findings identified 12 clusters related to the topic of older adults' physical activity in neighborhood spaces. Following the scientometric analysis (Figure 2), the most cited journals, leading countries, key variables, software, methods, and tools used in scientific productions within this field were identified according to the presented definitions.ResultsTo identify high-frequency and low-frequency keywords in the field of older adults' physical activity in neighborhood spaces, the co-word analysis method was employed. VOSviewer software identified 12 clusters by analyzing the keywords of the abstracts from 176 sources included in the systematic review. The first and second clusters, shown in red and green, consist of 14 and 10 keywords, respectively. In the first cluster, the two keywords 'neighborhood environment' and 'physical environment,' with link strengths of 25 and 22 respectively, ranked among the most frequent keywords. In the second cluster, 'elderly' and 'GPS,' with total link strengths of 28 and 25, were the most frequent keywords.Scientific production in this field followed an upward trend from 2000 to 2016 and a downward trend from 2017 to 2019. In 2020 and 2021, production resumed an upward trajectory, followed by a significant decline from 2021 onward, as illustrated in Figure 4. The countries that have contributed to this research domain were also examined and analyzed. The leading positions in scientific production belonged to the United States and China, with 34 and 32 sources, respectively. Canada and Japan ranked third and fourth, with 15 and 14 scientific productions.Among the methods used in the studies included in the systematic analysis, descriptive and correlational methods were the most frequently employed, with frequencies of 161 and 135, respectively. Following these, the survey-cross-sectional method ranked third. The pretest-posttest method ranked lowest, being used in only two articles. The findings indicated that the use of questionnaires, employed in 114 scientific publications, ranked highest among the tools for measuring older adults' physical activity in residential settings. The interview technique was the second most frequent tool, with a frequency of 93.The variables density, green space, aesthetics, and street connectivity were among the most frequent variables, with frequencies of 98, 97, 67, 65, and 55, respectively. The variables geometry, complexity, scalability, and orientation ranked lowest, each with a frequency of one. SPSS software was the most widely used software, employed in 57 scientific productions. Stata software ranked second, with a frequency of 28. The lowest ranks belonged to MPlus and AtlasTi software, each with a frequency of two.ConclusionThe results of this study indicate a significant research gap in studies related to the application of artificial intelligence, physical activity measurement tools, and built environment components within this domain. The findings underscore the necessity of expanding interdisciplinary research and strengthening scientific collaborations between Iran and both developed and developing countries in future studies. It is noteworthy that relying on a single database presents a limitation; focusing exclusively on Scopus may have reduced the scope of data coverage. Therefore, employing additional databases such as Web of Science and PubMed is recommended for future research.Overall, the findings of this review can serve as a guide for researchers in identifying priority research areas, reputable journals, and prominent authors for publishing articles or developing scientific collaborations. Furthermore, these results provide a more comprehensive understanding of the position of physical activity among older adults in the context of residential open spaces by offering a clearer articulation of research trends and highlighting emerging research issues.Article MessageThe results of this study highlight a substantial research gap in the domain of artificial intelligence, physical activity measurement tools, and the built environment within this field. By offering a clearer articulation of research trends and identifying contemporary hot topics, these findings provide a comprehensive picture of the status of physical activity among older adults in the context of residential open spacesEthical ConsiderationsAll research ethical guidelines were observed. The study received approval from the Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, University of Islamic Azad University, Pardis Branch.Authors' ContributionsConceptualization: Zahra Eivazi Damirchi, Amir Sanaee & Maryam Cheshmeh GhsabaniData Collection: Zahra Eivazi DamirchiData Analysis: Zahra Eivazi DamirchiManuscript Writing: Zahra Eivazi DamirchiReview and Editing: Amir Sanaee & Maryam Cheshmeh GhsabaniResponsible for funding: Zahra Eivazi Damirchi, Amir Sanaee & Maryam Cheshmeh GhsabaniLiterature Review: Zahra Eivazi DamirchiProject Manager: Amir SanaeeConflict of InterestThe authors declare no conflicts of interest.AcknowledgmentsThis article is an excerpt from Zahra Eyvazi Damirchi's doctoral thesis titled "Developing an Architectural Model of Neighborhood Spaces in Residential Complexes to Increase Pedestrianization for the Elderly," which is being conducted under the guidance of Dr. Amir Sana'i and the advice of Dr. Maryam Cheshmeh Qasaban at the Faculty of Engineering, Pardis Branch, Islamic Azad Universityhttps://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_5142_58155fc7f528a19b9fc3599b65047290.pdfSport Sciences Research InstituteMotor Behavior2538-273X186520260923Competition as a fundamental motor learning strategy in adolescent girls with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)Competition as a fundamental motor learning strategy in adolescent girls with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)6383501210.22089/mbj.2026.18494.2240FAFatemehVelayateeDepartment of Motor Behavior and Sport Management, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran.0009-0006-6101-3421AhmadrezaMovahediDepartment of Motor Behavior and Sport Management, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran0000-0002-2313-4752AhmadAbediDepartment of Children with Special Needs, Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran.0000-0002-3828-3419Journal Article20250916Extended AbstractBackground and PurposeMotor learning is a crucial aspect of cognitive and behavioral development influenced by environmental and motivational factors. In recent years, researchers have aimed to enhance motor skill acquisition by designing optimal training conditions. One key component is the competitive atmosphere during practice, which can improve performance by increasing motivation and focus. Numerous studies have examined the impact of competition on motor learning in typical individuals; however, its effect on those with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) remains underexplored. Individuals with ADHD face unique cognitive and behavioral challenges that hinder learning. Since they often respond positively to external stimuli such as competition, investigating the role of competitive environments in their motor learning is especially important. This study aims to explore how competitive settings influence sport skill learning in female students with ADHD and to propose effective educational strategies to enhance performance in this group.MethodsThis study employed a quasi-experimental design with pre-test, acquisition, immediate retention, and delayed retention phases, conducted in a field setting. The statistical population included all female middle school students in Najafabad during the 2024–2025 academic year. Out of 300 students, 60 were identified using the Conners Parent Rating Scale and referred to a psychiatrist. Ultimately, 32 students diagnosed with ADHD and willing to participate were randomly assigned to two matched groups based on symptom severity: a competitive group (15 participants) and a non-competitive group (17 participants).Data collection tools included a demographic information form (age, field of study, sports experience), a basketball free-throw test, and the Conners questionnaire. The basketball test was administered during pre-test, acquisition, and both retention phases, to measure the performances of the participants using a specific scoring system. The shooter was graded on results only: 2 points were awarded for each basket that the participant made and 1 point for an unsuccessful shot that hit the rim from above either initially or after rebounding from the backboard. To induce competition, the competitive group was publicly ranked each session by free-throw scores, with cumulative feedback provided. This aimed to enhance motivation and social comparison. The non-competitive group performed the same task without any ranking, feedback, or public display of performance. Both groups received identical instruction. Sessions took place in a well-lit gym with standard equipment. After 11 training sessions, immediate retention test was conducted, followed by delayed retention test one month later. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 22. Independent t-tests were used for pre-test and retention phases, while repeated measures ANOVA was applied during acquisition. A significance level of p < 0.05 was considered for all statistical tests.ResultsThe results of data analysis indicated that the study groups showed no significant differences in the pre-test phase regarding individual characteristics (age, weight, height, and severity of hyperactivity symptoms) and initial performance in the basketball free-throw task.During the acquisition phase, repeated measures ANOVA with Greenhouse–Geisser correction (due to lack of sphericity) showed that the main effects of time, group, and the interaction between group and time were all statistically significant (p < 0.05). These findings suggest that participants in the competitive group demonstrated a significantly greater improvement in performance over the course of the training sessions compared to the non-competitive group.In both the immediate and delayed retention phases, the independent t-test revealed significant differences between the two groups. Participants in the competitive group scored higher in both retention tests, indicating better consolidation of the learned motor skill. These results imply that the competitive environment was not only effective during the initial learning phase but also played a crucial role in the retention and recall of the skill.The comparative performance chart across different phases of the study clearly illustrated that the competitive group outperformed the non-competitive group in all stages—acquisition, immediate retention, and delayed retention. These differences were especially pronounced after the intervention. Overall, the findings suggest that implementing a competitive training environment can serve as an effective strategy for enhancing motor learning in female students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Competition, by fostering external motivation, increasing focus, and providing social feedback, may play a vital role in improving motor performance in this population.. Figure 1. Mean performance scores in the pretest (1), acquisition sessions (2 to 12), immediate retention test (13) and delayed retention test (14) in the competitive and non-competitive groups Overall, the findings suggest that implementing a competitive training environment can serve as an effective strategy for enhancing motor learning in female students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Competition, by fostering external motivation, increasing focus, and providing social feedback, may play a vital role in improving motor performance in this population.ConclusionThe results of this study clearly demonstrate the significant impact of a competitive training environment on learning basketball free-throw among female students with ADHD. Participants in the competitive group showed consistent and progressive improvement throughout the acquisition phase, while those in the non-competitive group experienced early gains followed by a noticeable decline in performance. In both immediate and delayed retention phases, the competitive group maintained their performance, whereas the non-competitive group showed a sharp decrease in skill retention. These findings suggest that competition may enhance motivation, focus, and engagement, helping learners with ADHD overcome attentional limitations and sustain performance over time. The results align with previous research and theoretical frameworks emphasizing the role of external motivation and reward systems in motor learning. Overall, competitive environments appear to be a powerful strategy for improving motor skill acquisition and retention in female students with ADHD.Article MessageCreating competitive training environments can effectively enhance motor learning in female students with ADHD. This approach serves as a powerful tool for coaches, therapists, and parents to improve motor performance and learning in these female students. From a practical perspective, these results provide valuable tools for educators, therapists, and parents to design educational settings and sports environments for female students with ADHD.Ethical ConsiderationsThis study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Isfahan under the code IR.UI.REC.1404.068. Research ethics and scientific writing principles have been observed in this study.Authors' ContributionsConceptualization: Ahmadreza Movahedi and Ahmad AbediData Collection: Fatemeh VelayateeData Analysis: Fatemeh Velayatee and Ahmadreza MovahediManuscript Writing: Fatemeh VelayateeReview and Editing: Ahmadreza MovahediLiterature Review: Fatemeh Velayatee, Ahmadreza Movahedi and Ahmad AbediProject Manager: Ahmadreza MovahediConflict of InterestAccording to the authors' declaration, this article has no conflict of interest.AcknowledgmentsThis article is derived from the first author's doctoral dissertation. The authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to the participants and reviewers for their essential roles in the successful completion of this research.Extended AbstractBackground and PurposeMotor learning is a crucial aspect of cognitive and behavioral development influenced by environmental and motivational factors. In recent years, researchers have aimed to enhance motor skill acquisition by designing optimal training conditions. One key component is the competitive atmosphere during practice, which can improve performance by increasing motivation and focus. Numerous studies have examined the impact of competition on motor learning in typical individuals; however, its effect on those with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) remains underexplored. Individuals with ADHD face unique cognitive and behavioral challenges that hinder learning. Since they often respond positively to external stimuli such as competition, investigating the role of competitive environments in their motor learning is especially important. This study aims to explore how competitive settings influence sport skill learning in female students with ADHD and to propose effective educational strategies to enhance performance in this group.MethodsThis study employed a quasi-experimental design with pre-test, acquisition, immediate retention, and delayed retention phases, conducted in a field setting. The statistical population included all female middle school students in Najafabad during the 2024–2025 academic year. Out of 300 students, 60 were identified using the Conners Parent Rating Scale and referred to a psychiatrist. Ultimately, 32 students diagnosed with ADHD and willing to participate were randomly assigned to two matched groups based on symptom severity: a competitive group (15 participants) and a non-competitive group (17 participants).Data collection tools included a demographic information form (age, field of study, sports experience), a basketball free-throw test, and the Conners questionnaire. The basketball test was administered during pre-test, acquisition, and both retention phases, to measure the performances of the participants using a specific scoring system. The shooter was graded on results only: 2 points were awarded for each basket that the participant made and 1 point for an unsuccessful shot that hit the rim from above either initially or after rebounding from the backboard. To induce competition, the competitive group was publicly ranked each session by free-throw scores, with cumulative feedback provided. This aimed to enhance motivation and social comparison. The non-competitive group performed the same task without any ranking, feedback, or public display of performance. Both groups received identical instruction. Sessions took place in a well-lit gym with standard equipment. After 11 training sessions, immediate retention test was conducted, followed by delayed retention test one month later. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 22. Independent t-tests were used for pre-test and retention phases, while repeated measures ANOVA was applied during acquisition. A significance level of p < 0.05 was considered for all statistical tests.ResultsThe results of data analysis indicated that the study groups showed no significant differences in the pre-test phase regarding individual characteristics (age, weight, height, and severity of hyperactivity symptoms) and initial performance in the basketball free-throw task.During the acquisition phase, repeated measures ANOVA with Greenhouse–Geisser correction (due to lack of sphericity) showed that the main effects of time, group, and the interaction between group and time were all statistically significant (p < 0.05). These findings suggest that participants in the competitive group demonstrated a significantly greater improvement in performance over the course of the training sessions compared to the non-competitive group.In both the immediate and delayed retention phases, the independent t-test revealed significant differences between the two groups. Participants in the competitive group scored higher in both retention tests, indicating better consolidation of the learned motor skill. These results imply that the competitive environment was not only effective during the initial learning phase but also played a crucial role in the retention and recall of the skill.The comparative performance chart across different phases of the study clearly illustrated that the competitive group outperformed the non-competitive group in all stages—acquisition, immediate retention, and delayed retention. These differences were especially pronounced after the intervention. Overall, the findings suggest that implementing a competitive training environment can serve as an effective strategy for enhancing motor learning in female students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Competition, by fostering external motivation, increasing focus, and providing social feedback, may play a vital role in improving motor performance in this population.. Figure 1. Mean performance scores in the pretest (1), acquisition sessions (2 to 12), immediate retention test (13) and delayed retention test (14) in the competitive and non-competitive groups Overall, the findings suggest that implementing a competitive training environment can serve as an effective strategy for enhancing motor learning in female students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Competition, by fostering external motivation, increasing focus, and providing social feedback, may play a vital role in improving motor performance in this population.ConclusionThe results of this study clearly demonstrate the significant impact of a competitive training environment on learning basketball free-throw among female students with ADHD. Participants in the competitive group showed consistent and progressive improvement throughout the acquisition phase, while those in the non-competitive group experienced early gains followed by a noticeable decline in performance. In both immediate and delayed retention phases, the competitive group maintained their performance, whereas the non-competitive group showed a sharp decrease in skill retention. These findings suggest that competition may enhance motivation, focus, and engagement, helping learners with ADHD overcome attentional limitations and sustain performance over time. The results align with previous research and theoretical frameworks emphasizing the role of external motivation and reward systems in motor learning. Overall, competitive environments appear to be a powerful strategy for improving motor skill acquisition and retention in female students with ADHD.Article MessageCreating competitive training environments can effectively enhance motor learning in female students with ADHD. This approach serves as a powerful tool for coaches, therapists, and parents to improve motor performance and learning in these female students. From a practical perspective, these results provide valuable tools for educators, therapists, and parents to design educational settings and sports environments for female students with ADHD.Ethical ConsiderationsThis study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Isfahan under the code IR.UI.REC.1404.068. Research ethics and scientific writing principles have been observed in this study.Authors' ContributionsConceptualization: Ahmadreza Movahedi and Ahmad AbediData Collection: Fatemeh VelayateeData Analysis: Fatemeh Velayatee and Ahmadreza MovahediManuscript Writing: Fatemeh VelayateeReview and Editing: Ahmadreza MovahediLiterature Review: Fatemeh Velayatee, Ahmadreza Movahedi and Ahmad AbediProject Manager: Ahmadreza MovahediConflict of InterestAccording to the authors' declaration, this article has no conflict of interest.AcknowledgmentsThis article is derived from the first author's doctoral dissertation. The authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to the participants and reviewers for their essential roles in the successful completion of this research.https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_5012_f0873a91b499e265ff6d78ff6e8985a0.pdfSport Sciences Research InstituteMotor Behavior2538-273X186520260923Comparison of Gaze Behavior Between Athletes and Non-Athletes During a Dynamic Visual TaskComparison of Gaze Behavior Between Athletes and Non-Athletes During a Dynamic Visual Task8498501310.22089/mbj.2026.18477.2237FAFatemehMoradiDepartment of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, Tehran, Iran.0009-0004-4711-474XFarshidTahmasbiDepartment of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, Tehran, Iran.0000-0001-8946-5856FarzanehHatamiDepartment of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, Tehran, Iran.0000-0003-3493-5966Journal Article20250920Extended AbstractBackground and PurposeIn the past two decades, mechanisms underlying athletic expertise have garnered increasing attention from researchers. Elite sports performance relies not only on physical abilities but also on efficient visual information processing and rapid decision-making. Visual search strategies, involving eye movements such as fixations and saccades, enable athletes to anticipate and respond to dynamic environmental cues. Previous research has shown differences in gaze behavior between athletes and non-athletes. Most studies have focused on real-game situations, making it difficult to separate the effects of general sports experience from task-specific knowledge. To address this research gap, dynamic, standardized, non-sport-specific visual tasks can be used to examine fundamental gaze behavior under controlled conditions. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare key gaze behavior indices, including the number of fixations, the number of saccades, and fixation duration, between athlete and non-athlete students during a controlled dynamic visual tracking task using eye-tracking technology.MethodsThis study, adhering to ethical research guidelines, utilized a causal-comparative design to compare visual search indices (number of fixations, saccades, and fixation duration) between athletes and non-athletes. The sample included 89 students, with 45 athletes and 44 non-athletes, selected through convenience sampling. In an orientation session, the purpose and procedures of the study were explained. Demographic data (age, gender, type of sport) were collected via questionnaire. Visual acuity was verified using a Snellen chart, ensuring normal vision for all participants. Eye movements were recorded using the EyeLink 1000 Plus device at a sampling rate of 500 Hz. Participants were seated 70 cm from the display, with chins stabilized to minimize head movement. A 25-mm lens camera was positioned 45 cm away. The research protocol was designed using Experiment Builder in three stages: first, a 9-point calibration, followed by validation, and then a 20-second dynamic visual task, which was created in Blender 4.3.2. The task involved a point-shaped visual target with an angular size of 0.775 degrees, moving horizontally in a regular triangular wave pattern at five velocities (20–100 degrees/second). Participants tracked the target without prior training, and the eye-tracking task took less than five minutes for each individual. Eye-tracking data were analyzed using DataViewer software. Fixations (threshold: 100–700 ms) and saccades (minimum angular velocity: 30 degrees/second) were extracted, with blinks and incomplete data excluded. Data normality was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test, and variance homogeneity was evaluated with Levene's test. Independent t-tests were applied for normally distributed data, and Mann–Whitney U tests for non-normally distributed data. All statistical analyses were conducted in SPSS 26 with a significance level of 0.05.ResultsThis study investigated visual search indices (fixations, saccades, fixation duration) in 89 students (45 athletes, 44 non-athletes) during dynamic visual tracking. Athlete (21.78 ± 1.56 years) and non-athlete (21.43 ± 1.95 years) groups were similarly aged; among athletes, 64.4% participated in ball sports and 35.6% in non-ball sports. Athletes exhibited fewer saccades (M = 22.63 vs. 28.36) and fixations (M = 13.57 vs. 18.25) than non-athletes; fixation duration was slightly shorter in athletes (344.25 ms vs. 352.01 ms). Shapiro–Wilk tests indicated normality in non-athletes for all variables (p ≥ 0.05), whereas athletes showed non-normal distributions for saccade (p = 0.017) and fixation counts (p = 0.015), though fixation duration was normal (p = 0.448). Accordingly, Mann–Whitney U tests revealed significantly fewer saccades (p = 0.003) and fixations (p = 0.002) in athletes (mean ranks: 36.83 and 36.80) versus non-athletes (53.35 and 53.39). An independent t-test with corrected variance (F = 4.898, p = 0.030) showed no significant difference in fixation duration (t = 0.697, p = 0.488). Heatmaps weighted by fixation count revealed athletes displayed more uniform, targeted gaze patterns focused on direction-change points with fewer fixations on straight segments (40–100°/s), whereas non-athletes showed dispersed gaze across the entire path, indicating athletes' superior motion tracking and prediction. Supplemental analysis comparing ball versus non-ball sport athletes found non-significant differences in saccades (p = 0.176), fixations (p = 0.213), and fixation duration (p = 0.052), though ball-sport athletes showed numerically higher saccade and fixation counts. These patterns may reflect sport-type-specific visual strategies requiring further investigation.ConclusionThis study compared gaze behavior between athletes and non-athletes during dynamic visual tracking. Athletes executed significantly fewer saccades and fixations than non-athletes, whose more dispersed eye movements reflected less efficient visual search. Fixation duration did not differ between groups, likely due to the task's simplicity reducing the need for gaze adjustments. These findings indicate that gaze differences reflect distinct visual strategies rather than performance disparities. Exploratory analysis revealed no significant differences between ball and non-ball sport athletes in saccades, fixations, or fixation duration, warranting further investigation. Results demonstrate that group differences in gaze behavior emerge even in simplified, non-sport-specific tasks, supporting controlled dynamic paradigms for examining eye movement tendencies. Future research should complement these basic assessments with complex, sport-realistic tasks to comprehensively understand visual strategies.Article MessageThis study shows that athletes and non-athletes differ in their eye movement patterns even during a simple, non-sport tracking task, with athletes making fewer saccades and fixations. The findings of this study emphasize the effectiveness of controlled dynamic visual tasks in identifying visual search strategies and provide a methodological framework for future research in this area.FundingThis work has been financially supported by Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University Fund under grant number 1404/379004.Ethical ConsiderationsThis research was conducted in accordance with research guidelines and adheres to all ethical principles.Authors' ContributionsThe authors have made equal contributions in the design, implementation, and writing of various sections of the research.Conflict of InterestThe authors declare no conflict of interest.AcknowledgmentsWe sincerely thank the Vice President for Research and Technology, especially the technical staff who collaborated in the eye tracking training and working with the device. We also thank all the participants for their time and participation.Extended AbstractBackground and PurposeIn the past two decades, mechanisms underlying athletic expertise have garnered increasing attention from researchers. Elite sports performance relies not only on physical abilities but also on efficient visual information processing and rapid decision-making. Visual search strategies, involving eye movements such as fixations and saccades, enable athletes to anticipate and respond to dynamic environmental cues. Previous research has shown differences in gaze behavior between athletes and non-athletes. Most studies have focused on real-game situations, making it difficult to separate the effects of general sports experience from task-specific knowledge. To address this research gap, dynamic, standardized, non-sport-specific visual tasks can be used to examine fundamental gaze behavior under controlled conditions. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare key gaze behavior indices, including the number of fixations, the number of saccades, and fixation duration, between athlete and non-athlete students during a controlled dynamic visual tracking task using eye-tracking technology.MethodsThis study, adhering to ethical research guidelines, utilized a causal-comparative design to compare visual search indices (number of fixations, saccades, and fixation duration) between athletes and non-athletes. The sample included 89 students, with 45 athletes and 44 non-athletes, selected through convenience sampling. In an orientation session, the purpose and procedures of the study were explained. Demographic data (age, gender, type of sport) were collected via questionnaire. Visual acuity was verified using a Snellen chart, ensuring normal vision for all participants. Eye movements were recorded using the EyeLink 1000 Plus device at a sampling rate of 500 Hz. Participants were seated 70 cm from the display, with chins stabilized to minimize head movement. A 25-mm lens camera was positioned 45 cm away. The research protocol was designed using Experiment Builder in three stages: first, a 9-point calibration, followed by validation, and then a 20-second dynamic visual task, which was created in Blender 4.3.2. The task involved a point-shaped visual target with an angular size of 0.775 degrees, moving horizontally in a regular triangular wave pattern at five velocities (20–100 degrees/second). Participants tracked the target without prior training, and the eye-tracking task took less than five minutes for each individual. Eye-tracking data were analyzed using DataViewer software. Fixations (threshold: 100–700 ms) and saccades (minimum angular velocity: 30 degrees/second) were extracted, with blinks and incomplete data excluded. Data normality was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test, and variance homogeneity was evaluated with Levene's test. Independent t-tests were applied for normally distributed data, and Mann–Whitney U tests for non-normally distributed data. All statistical analyses were conducted in SPSS 26 with a significance level of 0.05.ResultsThis study investigated visual search indices (fixations, saccades, fixation duration) in 89 students (45 athletes, 44 non-athletes) during dynamic visual tracking. Athlete (21.78 ± 1.56 years) and non-athlete (21.43 ± 1.95 years) groups were similarly aged; among athletes, 64.4% participated in ball sports and 35.6% in non-ball sports. Athletes exhibited fewer saccades (M = 22.63 vs. 28.36) and fixations (M = 13.57 vs. 18.25) than non-athletes; fixation duration was slightly shorter in athletes (344.25 ms vs. 352.01 ms). Shapiro–Wilk tests indicated normality in non-athletes for all variables (p ≥ 0.05), whereas athletes showed non-normal distributions for saccade (p = 0.017) and fixation counts (p = 0.015), though fixation duration was normal (p = 0.448). Accordingly, Mann–Whitney U tests revealed significantly fewer saccades (p = 0.003) and fixations (p = 0.002) in athletes (mean ranks: 36.83 and 36.80) versus non-athletes (53.35 and 53.39). An independent t-test with corrected variance (F = 4.898, p = 0.030) showed no significant difference in fixation duration (t = 0.697, p = 0.488). Heatmaps weighted by fixation count revealed athletes displayed more uniform, targeted gaze patterns focused on direction-change points with fewer fixations on straight segments (40–100°/s), whereas non-athletes showed dispersed gaze across the entire path, indicating athletes' superior motion tracking and prediction. Supplemental analysis comparing ball versus non-ball sport athletes found non-significant differences in saccades (p = 0.176), fixations (p = 0.213), and fixation duration (p = 0.052), though ball-sport athletes showed numerically higher saccade and fixation counts. These patterns may reflect sport-type-specific visual strategies requiring further investigation.ConclusionThis study compared gaze behavior between athletes and non-athletes during dynamic visual tracking. Athletes executed significantly fewer saccades and fixations than non-athletes, whose more dispersed eye movements reflected less efficient visual search. Fixation duration did not differ between groups, likely due to the task's simplicity reducing the need for gaze adjustments. These findings indicate that gaze differences reflect distinct visual strategies rather than performance disparities. Exploratory analysis revealed no significant differences between ball and non-ball sport athletes in saccades, fixations, or fixation duration, warranting further investigation. Results demonstrate that group differences in gaze behavior emerge even in simplified, non-sport-specific tasks, supporting controlled dynamic paradigms for examining eye movement tendencies. Future research should complement these basic assessments with complex, sport-realistic tasks to comprehensively understand visual strategies.Article MessageThis study shows that athletes and non-athletes differ in their eye movement patterns even during a simple, non-sport tracking task, with athletes making fewer saccades and fixations. The findings of this study emphasize the effectiveness of controlled dynamic visual tasks in identifying visual search strategies and provide a methodological framework for future research in this area.FundingThis work has been financially supported by Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University Fund under grant number 1404/379004.Ethical ConsiderationsThis research was conducted in accordance with research guidelines and adheres to all ethical principles.Authors' ContributionsThe authors have made equal contributions in the design, implementation, and writing of various sections of the research.Conflict of InterestThe authors declare no conflict of interest.AcknowledgmentsWe sincerely thank the Vice President for Research and Technology, especially the technical staff who collaborated in the eye tracking training and working with the device. We also thank all the participants for their time and participation.https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_5013_e140dbab44e01e699491a59c9978b924.pdfSport Sciences Research InstituteMotor Behavior2538-273X186520260923The Effect of Two Mind-Body Training Methods on Balance Confidence, Walking Speed, and Balance Performance in Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) Elderly WomenThe Effect of Two Mind-Body Training Methods on Balance Confidence, Walking Speed, and Balance Performance in Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) Elderly Women99123501610.22089/mbj.2025.18449.2233FAMohaddesehHosseiniDepartment of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences in Sport, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran0009-0000-5909-1080DaryoushKhajaviDepartment of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences in Sport, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran0000-0001-5778-5089DavoodHomanianDepartment of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences in Sport, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran0000-0003-3250-832XJournal Article20250908Extended AbstractBackground and PurposeWith increasing life expectancy, advancements in health care, and declining fertility rates, an unprecedented growth in the elderly population is occurring in Iran and worldwide. Aging often leads to a decline in motor (e.g., decreased walking speed), psychological (e.g., decreased balance confidence), and cognitive functions. Cognitive impairment may result in neurodegenerative conditions such as mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Approximately 15 to 40 percent of individuals with MCI eventually develop Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, the risk of falling and its consequences is significantly greater for these individuals. Therefore, the aim of this research was to examine the effects of two types of mind-body exercises on balance confidence, walking speed, and balance performance in elderly individuals with mild cognitive impairment.MethodsThis research method employed a quasi-experimental design with a pre-test and post-test structure. The study received ethical approval from the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences. For this study, 50 elderly individuals initially expressed their consent by signing a consent form to participate in the research. Following this, a brief test of cognitive status was administered. From the initial pool, thirty-four elderly individuals, aged 60 to 70 years, were selected from day care centers in Tabriz. Eligibility criteria included a cognitive test score between 21 and 24, and successful completion of a general medical examination by a physician to confirm their suitability for participation. These eligible participants were then randomly assigned to either a Pilates or a Yoga training group. After the pre-test, the participants trained for 8 weeks (three sessions per week, approximately one hour each session). Key outcome measures were assessed using the following instruments: The Activities-specific Balance Confidence (ABC) questionnaire was used to evaluate balance confidence. Walking speed was measured using the 10-meter walk test. Static balance under dual-task conditions was assessed with the Stork test, and dynamic balance under dual-task conditions was evaluated using the Timed Up and Go (TUG) test. Data were analyzed using Mixed ANOVA, independent t-test, and Mann-Whitney U tests with SPSS-27 software. The statistical significance level was set at p ≤ 0.05.ResultsThe study examined the effects of Pilates and yoga training on static and dynamic balance, walking speed, in elderly women with mild cognitive impairment.Firstly, measurement time significantly impacted static balance under a motor dual task, with results indicating a marked difference between pre-test and post-test scores (p < 0.001, η² = 0.695). However, the group effect was not statistically significant (p = 0.080, η² = 0.105), suggesting that neither Pilates nor yoga training produced significantly different outcomes in static balance. Moreover, the interaction effect between group and time was significant (p = 0.006, η² = 0.241), indicating differences in balance performance when combining these variables.Similarly, in terms of static balance under a cognitive dual task, the effects of measurement time reached significance (p < 0.001, η² = 0.699), showing improvements from pre-test to post-test. However, the group effect again was not significant (p = 0.165, η² = 0.068), indicating equal effectiveness of both training modalities on static balance. The interaction effect of group and time was statistically significant (p = 0.010, η² = 0.215), further demonstrating the complexity of balance improvements over time.In dynamic balance scores under a motor dual task, measurement time was significant (p < 0.007, η² = 0.232), indicating improvements between pre-test and post-test. Conversely, the group effect showed no significant difference (p = 0.655, η² = 0.007). Notably, the interaction effect of group and time was not significant (p = 0.280, η² = 0.042), suggesting that the training modalities did not differentially impact dynamic balance.For dynamic balance under a cognitive dual task, the measurement of time again produced significant results (p < 0.001, η² = 0.518), but the group effect was not significant (p = 0.996, η² = 0.000). The interaction effect also failed to reach significance (p = 0.892, η² = 0.001).Lastly, unhindered walking speed scores demonstrated significant changes based on measurement time (p < 0.001, η² = 0.642), whereas group differences were not statistically significant (p = 0.460, η² = 0.020). The analysis of obstacle speed and balance confidence tests revealed no significant differences between the two groups, with mean scores of 14.07 and 16.93 for obstacle speed, and 13.83 and 17.17 for balance confidence, respectively, with significance levels of 0.372 and 0.294. Overall, the results underline the importance of measurement time while suggesting that both Pilates and yoga have similar effects on balance and walking speed in this population.ConclusionBased on the findings of this study, both mind-body training methods of Pilates and yoga can be used to improve balance confidence, walking speed, and balance performance under cognitive and motor dual-task conditions in elderly women with mild cognitive impairment. Pilates exercises consist of stretching and strength movements that enhance flexibility and muscular strength while engaging multiple muscle groups simultaneously. This holistic approach activates the body and mind, improving balance by targeting deep muscles. Both Pilates and yoga enhance neural adaptability and facilitate sensory input, providing training opportunities that improve static and dynamic balance and balance confidence in elderly women with mild cognitive impairment. Furthermore, it is well-established that walking speed in older adults often declines, significantly impacting their independence and quality of life. The observed improvements in walking speed suggest that regular engagement in Pilates and yoga can enhance functional mobility and the ability to perform daily activities in elderly individuals.Article MessagePilates and yoga exercises offer a highly advantageous approach for elderly women with mild cognitive impairment, effectively enhancing motor performance, balance confidence, and overall balance. These methods are particularly beneficial due to their non-invasive, non-pharmacological, and low-cost nature. Furthermore, they are easy to perform, requiring minimal specialized equipment, and are readily adaptable to various settings, from community centers to home environments.Ethical ConsiderationsThis study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Tehran (Ethics code: IR.UT.SPORT.REC.1402.095).Authors' ContributionsAll three authors contributed to the writing of the article. The first author was responsible for the implementation of the training programs, data collection, and statistical analysis. The second author wrote the manuscript. All three authors contributed to the final editing of the manuscript. The final editing was done by the second author.Conflict of InterestThe authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.AcknowledgmentsWe sincerely thank the management and staff of the Chatr Sabz and Iran Tabriz Elderly Day Care Centers and all the loved ones who helped us in conducting this research.Extended AbstractBackground and PurposeWith increasing life expectancy, advancements in health care, and declining fertility rates, an unprecedented growth in the elderly population is occurring in Iran and worldwide. Aging often leads to a decline in motor (e.g., decreased walking speed), psychological (e.g., decreased balance confidence), and cognitive functions. Cognitive impairment may result in neurodegenerative conditions such as mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Approximately 15 to 40 percent of individuals with MCI eventually develop Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, the risk of falling and its consequences is significantly greater for these individuals. Therefore, the aim of this research was to examine the effects of two types of mind-body exercises on balance confidence, walking speed, and balance performance in elderly individuals with mild cognitive impairment.MethodsThis research method employed a quasi-experimental design with a pre-test and post-test structure. The study received ethical approval from the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences. For this study, 50 elderly individuals initially expressed their consent by signing a consent form to participate in the research. Following this, a brief test of cognitive status was administered. From the initial pool, thirty-four elderly individuals, aged 60 to 70 years, were selected from day care centers in Tabriz. Eligibility criteria included a cognitive test score between 21 and 24, and successful completion of a general medical examination by a physician to confirm their suitability for participation. These eligible participants were then randomly assigned to either a Pilates or a Yoga training group. After the pre-test, the participants trained for 8 weeks (three sessions per week, approximately one hour each session). Key outcome measures were assessed using the following instruments: The Activities-specific Balance Confidence (ABC) questionnaire was used to evaluate balance confidence. Walking speed was measured using the 10-meter walk test. Static balance under dual-task conditions was assessed with the Stork test, and dynamic balance under dual-task conditions was evaluated using the Timed Up and Go (TUG) test. Data were analyzed using Mixed ANOVA, independent t-test, and Mann-Whitney U tests with SPSS-27 software. The statistical significance level was set at p ≤ 0.05.ResultsThe study examined the effects of Pilates and yoga training on static and dynamic balance, walking speed, in elderly women with mild cognitive impairment.Firstly, measurement time significantly impacted static balance under a motor dual task, with results indicating a marked difference between pre-test and post-test scores (p < 0.001, η² = 0.695). However, the group effect was not statistically significant (p = 0.080, η² = 0.105), suggesting that neither Pilates nor yoga training produced significantly different outcomes in static balance. Moreover, the interaction effect between group and time was significant (p = 0.006, η² = 0.241), indicating differences in balance performance when combining these variables.Similarly, in terms of static balance under a cognitive dual task, the effects of measurement time reached significance (p < 0.001, η² = 0.699), showing improvements from pre-test to post-test. However, the group effect again was not significant (p = 0.165, η² = 0.068), indicating equal effectiveness of both training modalities on static balance. The interaction effect of group and time was statistically significant (p = 0.010, η² = 0.215), further demonstrating the complexity of balance improvements over time.In dynamic balance scores under a motor dual task, measurement time was significant (p < 0.007, η² = 0.232), indicating improvements between pre-test and post-test. Conversely, the group effect showed no significant difference (p = 0.655, η² = 0.007). Notably, the interaction effect of group and time was not significant (p = 0.280, η² = 0.042), suggesting that the training modalities did not differentially impact dynamic balance.For dynamic balance under a cognitive dual task, the measurement of time again produced significant results (p < 0.001, η² = 0.518), but the group effect was not significant (p = 0.996, η² = 0.000). The interaction effect also failed to reach significance (p = 0.892, η² = 0.001).Lastly, unhindered walking speed scores demonstrated significant changes based on measurement time (p < 0.001, η² = 0.642), whereas group differences were not statistically significant (p = 0.460, η² = 0.020). The analysis of obstacle speed and balance confidence tests revealed no significant differences between the two groups, with mean scores of 14.07 and 16.93 for obstacle speed, and 13.83 and 17.17 for balance confidence, respectively, with significance levels of 0.372 and 0.294. Overall, the results underline the importance of measurement time while suggesting that both Pilates and yoga have similar effects on balance and walking speed in this population.ConclusionBased on the findings of this study, both mind-body training methods of Pilates and yoga can be used to improve balance confidence, walking speed, and balance performance under cognitive and motor dual-task conditions in elderly women with mild cognitive impairment. Pilates exercises consist of stretching and strength movements that enhance flexibility and muscular strength while engaging multiple muscle groups simultaneously. This holistic approach activates the body and mind, improving balance by targeting deep muscles. Both Pilates and yoga enhance neural adaptability and facilitate sensory input, providing training opportunities that improve static and dynamic balance and balance confidence in elderly women with mild cognitive impairment. Furthermore, it is well-established that walking speed in older adults often declines, significantly impacting their independence and quality of life. The observed improvements in walking speed suggest that regular engagement in Pilates and yoga can enhance functional mobility and the ability to perform daily activities in elderly individuals.Article MessagePilates and yoga exercises offer a highly advantageous approach for elderly women with mild cognitive impairment, effectively enhancing motor performance, balance confidence, and overall balance. These methods are particularly beneficial due to their non-invasive, non-pharmacological, and low-cost nature. Furthermore, they are easy to perform, requiring minimal specialized equipment, and are readily adaptable to various settings, from community centers to home environments.Ethical ConsiderationsThis study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Tehran (Ethics code: IR.UT.SPORT.REC.1402.095).Authors' ContributionsAll three authors contributed to the writing of the article. The first author was responsible for the implementation of the training programs, data collection, and statistical analysis. The second author wrote the manuscript. All three authors contributed to the final editing of the manuscript. The final editing was done by the second author.Conflict of InterestThe authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.AcknowledgmentsWe sincerely thank the management and staff of the Chatr Sabz and Iran Tabriz Elderly Day Care Centers and all the loved ones who helped us in conducting this research.https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_5016_7e3315fe390974fcf25e44a9445bd821.pdfSport Sciences Research InstituteMotor Behavior2538-273X186520260923Investigating the Role of Different Dimensions of Time Perspectives in the Performance and Learning of Basic Basketball SkillInvestigating the Role of Different Dimensions of Time Perspectives in the Performance and Learning of Basic Basketball Skill124148504310.22089/mbj.2026.19017.2257FAShahramNazarpouriDepartment of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Lorestan University, Khorramabad, Iran.0000-0002-6491-8510MajidMohammadiDepartment of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Lorestan University, Khorramabad, Iran.0000-0002-6491-8510Journal Article20260105Extended AbstractBackground and PurposeDespite existing evidence on the role of Time Perspective (TP) in sport performance, a systematic examination of its different dimensions in the processes of skill execution and learning particularly in team sports such as basketball remains limited. Accordingly, the present study focused on fundamental basketball skills and aimed to investigate how different TP dimensions are related to skill execution and learning. Examining this relationship may provide valuable insights for coaches and sport psychologists, enabling them to design more effective training and instructional strategies based on athletes' temporal preferences, thereby enhancing learning efficiency and the quality of skill performance. In line with this, the hypothesis of the present study was that, unlike the past-negative and present-fatalistic dimensions, the past-positive, present-hedonistic, and future time perspectives would be positively and significantly associated with levels of basketball skill performance and learning. Therefore, this study sought to examine this pattern in basketball in order to identify a balanced and optimal TP profile for this sport. Such a profile may serve as a practical guideline for designing training and educational programs tailored to the temporal psychological characteristics of basketball players.MethodThis study was applied in nature and employed a quasi-experimental pretest–posttest design with a control group. A basketball training–educational program was implemented as the intervention for the experimental group. The statistical population consisted of 156 students participating in extracurricular physical education programs at Lorestan University. From this population, 80 eligible participants were selected using purposive sampling based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, and were then randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group (n = 40 per group). The experimental group participated in the basketball training–educational program, whereas the control group received no intervention and continued their routine daily activities. The sample size was determined using G*Power software, with a significance level of α = 0.05 and a statistical power of 0.85. The inclusion criteria were male gender, age between 18 and 25 years, enrollment in extracurricular or instructional physical education courses at Lorestan University, no prior professional or team basketball experience, absence of injury or medical conditions affecting physical activity, and informed consent to participate in the study. The exclusion criteria included missing more than three training sessions, occurrence of injury or physical problems during the intervention period, failure to complete the assessments or questionnaires, and withdrawal from participation. Data were collected using the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) and basketball skill tests assessing dribbling, passing, and shooting. All procedures were reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Lorestan University of Medical Sciences (IR.LUMS.REC.1404.182). Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were used to describe the study variables. Repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted to examine the effect of the intervention on basketball skill performance and learning. In addition, Pearson correlation analysis and multiple linear regression (enter method) were used to examine and predict basketball skill performance and learning based on different dimensions of TP. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 26, with the significance level set at 0.05.ResultsDescriptive statistics indicated that the mean age of participants was 20.22 years in the experimental group and 21.50 years in the control group, with relatively low variability in both groups. In the experimental group, mean scores for passing skill showed a progressive increase from pretest to posttest and retention (from 14.38 to 18.08 and 18.20). A similar upward trend was observed for shooting skill, increasing from 11.48 at pretest to 13.98 at posttest and 13.73 at retention. Dribbling performance also improved from 11.48 to 13.58 and 13.75 across the three phases. In contrast, the control group showed no substantial changes across the three skills, with scores remaining stable or slightly decreasing: passing (14.63 to 14.38 and 14.43), shooting (11.63 to 11.43 and 11.58), and dribbling (11.38 to 11.25 and 11.28). Results from the mixed-design repeated-measures ANOVA (time × group) revealed a significant interaction effect for all three skills—passing, shooting, and dribbling (p < 0.001)—with effect sizes ranging from medium to large. This finding indicates that performance changes over time differed between the two groups, and that the intervention program led to significantly greater improvements in fundamental basketball skills in the experimental group compared to the control group.Pearson correlation analyses showed that future time perspective at posttest was positively and significantly correlated with shooting (r = 0.731, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.632, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.643, p < 0.01). Similar relationships were observed at retention: shooting (r = 0.715, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.588, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.611, p < 0.01). Present-hedonistic perspective was also positively and significantly associated with performance at posttest—shooting (r = 0.587, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.507, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.534, p < 0.01)—and at retention: shooting (r = 0.568, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.465, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.506, p < 0.01). Similarly, past-positive perspective showed significant positive correlations with all three skills at posttest—shooting (r = 0.693, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.563, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.569, p < 0.01)—and at retention: shooting (r = 0.676, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.537, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.542, p < 0.01). In contrast, present-fatalistic perspective was negatively and significantly correlated with shooting at posttest (r = −0.346, p < 0.01) and with passing and dribbling (r = −0.269, p < 0.05). A similar pattern was observed at retention for shooting (r = −0.356, p < 0.01), passing (r = −0.244, p < 0.05), and dribbling (r = −0.269, p < 0.05). No significant relationships were found between past-negative perspective and any of the performance measures (p > 0.05).Multiple linear regression analyses indicated that the model predicting posttest passing performance was significant (p < 0.05) and explained 43.2% of the variance, with future time perspective emerging as the only significant positive predictor (β = 0.55, p < 0.05). The retention model was also significant (p < 0.05) and explained 37.8% of the variance; however, none of the time perspective dimensions independently predicted performance (p > 0.05). For shooting skill, the posttest model was significant (p < 0.05) and explained 15.8% of the variance, with future time perspective as a positive predictor (β = 0.46, p < 0.05) and present-fatalistic perspective as a negative predictor (β = −0.22, p < 0.05). This pattern was replicated at retention, where the model was significant (p < 0.05) and explained 25.6% of the variance; future time perspective (β = 0.48, p < 0.05) and present-fatalistic perspective (β = −0.25, p < 0.01) were positive and negative predictors, respectively. For dribbling skill, the posttest model was significant (p < 0.05) and explained 43.7% of the variance, with future time perspective as the only significant positive predictor (β = 0.61, p < 0.01). Similarly, the retention model was significant (p < 0.05) and explained 39.6% of the variance, again identifying future time perspective as the sole significant positive predictor (β = 0.57, p < 0.05).ConclusionOverall, the findings of the present study suggest that the acquisition and performance of fundamental basketball skills emerge from a hierarchical interaction among cognitive, motivational, and behavioral levels within different dimensions of time perspective (TP). In this framework, Future Time Perspective (FTP) serves as a central organizing mechanism of temporal cognition, facilitating stability and improvement in performance and motor skill learning by aligning cognitive, motivational, and behavioral processes in a coherent manner. In contrast, the Present Fatalistic (PF) perspective operates as a multi-level disruptive factor, exerting simultaneous negative effects across cognitive, motivational, and behavioral domains. It disrupts temporal balance and is associated with reduced self-efficacy, lower perceived control, diminished intrinsic motivation, and ultimately impaired performance and motor skill acquisition. Accordingly, the present findings indicate that TP should be regarded as a multi-level regulatory construct of performance. Through the dynamic interplay of cognitive organization (Stolarsky's model), motivational regulation (Self-Determination Theory), and behavioral forces (Lewin's Field Theory), TP is closely linked to the quality of execution and learning of fundamental basketball skills.Article MessageThe findings of this study indicate that improvements in basketball skill performance and learning are not driven solely by practice and experience, but are also closely related to individuals' attitudes and orientations toward time. In this regard, Future Time Perspective (FTP) may function as a facilitating factor by transforming each training session into an opportunity for long-term investment. By enhancing self-regulation and goal-setting processes, it contributes to more effective skill execution and learning. In contrast, a Present Fatalistic (PF) orientation may hinder the full use of training potential, even under well-structured practice conditions. This is mainly due to reduced perceived control and weakened self-efficacy, which can negatively affect both performance and skill acquisition. Accordingly, time perspective-based educational and intervention programs particularly those aimed at strengthening FTP and reducing PF can be considered a complementary, evidence-based approach for improving the execution and learning of fundamental basketball skills.Ethical ConsiderationsThis study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and the guidelines provided by the American Psychological Association (APA). All participants provided informed consent prior to participation, and confidentiality was strictly maintained throughout the research process. The research protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the affiliated university under the code IR.LUMS.REC.1404.182. The study adhered to ethical principles ensuring the respect, dignity, and welfare of all participants.Authors' ContributionsAll authors equally contributed to the conceptualization, data collection, manuscript writing, review and editing, funding acquisition, and project management.Conflict of InterestThe author declares that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article. All procedures were conducted impartially, and no financial or personal relationships influenced the outcomes or interpretations of the research.AcknowledgmentsWe sincerely thank all the respected officials and staff of Lorestan University who assisted us in the implementation of this research.Extended AbstractBackground and PurposeDespite existing evidence on the role of Time Perspective (TP) in sport performance, a systematic examination of its different dimensions in the processes of skill execution and learning particularly in team sports such as basketball remains limited. Accordingly, the present study focused on fundamental basketball skills and aimed to investigate how different TP dimensions are related to skill execution and learning. Examining this relationship may provide valuable insights for coaches and sport psychologists, enabling them to design more effective training and instructional strategies based on athletes' temporal preferences, thereby enhancing learning efficiency and the quality of skill performance. In line with this, the hypothesis of the present study was that, unlike the past-negative and present-fatalistic dimensions, the past-positive, present-hedonistic, and future time perspectives would be positively and significantly associated with levels of basketball skill performance and learning. Therefore, this study sought to examine this pattern in basketball in order to identify a balanced and optimal TP profile for this sport. Such a profile may serve as a practical guideline for designing training and educational programs tailored to the temporal psychological characteristics of basketball players.MethodThis study was applied in nature and employed a quasi-experimental pretest–posttest design with a control group. A basketball training–educational program was implemented as the intervention for the experimental group. The statistical population consisted of 156 students participating in extracurricular physical education programs at Lorestan University. From this population, 80 eligible participants were selected using purposive sampling based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, and were then randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group (n = 40 per group). The experimental group participated in the basketball training–educational program, whereas the control group received no intervention and continued their routine daily activities. The sample size was determined using G*Power software, with a significance level of α = 0.05 and a statistical power of 0.85. The inclusion criteria were male gender, age between 18 and 25 years, enrollment in extracurricular or instructional physical education courses at Lorestan University, no prior professional or team basketball experience, absence of injury or medical conditions affecting physical activity, and informed consent to participate in the study. The exclusion criteria included missing more than three training sessions, occurrence of injury or physical problems during the intervention period, failure to complete the assessments or questionnaires, and withdrawal from participation. Data were collected using the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) and basketball skill tests assessing dribbling, passing, and shooting. All procedures were reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Lorestan University of Medical Sciences (IR.LUMS.REC.1404.182). Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were used to describe the study variables. Repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted to examine the effect of the intervention on basketball skill performance and learning. In addition, Pearson correlation analysis and multiple linear regression (enter method) were used to examine and predict basketball skill performance and learning based on different dimensions of TP. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 26, with the significance level set at 0.05.ResultsDescriptive statistics indicated that the mean age of participants was 20.22 years in the experimental group and 21.50 years in the control group, with relatively low variability in both groups. In the experimental group, mean scores for passing skill showed a progressive increase from pretest to posttest and retention (from 14.38 to 18.08 and 18.20). A similar upward trend was observed for shooting skill, increasing from 11.48 at pretest to 13.98 at posttest and 13.73 at retention. Dribbling performance also improved from 11.48 to 13.58 and 13.75 across the three phases. In contrast, the control group showed no substantial changes across the three skills, with scores remaining stable or slightly decreasing: passing (14.63 to 14.38 and 14.43), shooting (11.63 to 11.43 and 11.58), and dribbling (11.38 to 11.25 and 11.28). Results from the mixed-design repeated-measures ANOVA (time × group) revealed a significant interaction effect for all three skills—passing, shooting, and dribbling (p < 0.001)—with effect sizes ranging from medium to large. This finding indicates that performance changes over time differed between the two groups, and that the intervention program led to significantly greater improvements in fundamental basketball skills in the experimental group compared to the control group.Pearson correlation analyses showed that future time perspective at posttest was positively and significantly correlated with shooting (r = 0.731, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.632, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.643, p < 0.01). Similar relationships were observed at retention: shooting (r = 0.715, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.588, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.611, p < 0.01). Present-hedonistic perspective was also positively and significantly associated with performance at posttest—shooting (r = 0.587, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.507, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.534, p < 0.01)—and at retention: shooting (r = 0.568, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.465, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.506, p < 0.01). Similarly, past-positive perspective showed significant positive correlations with all three skills at posttest—shooting (r = 0.693, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.563, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.569, p < 0.01)—and at retention: shooting (r = 0.676, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.537, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.542, p < 0.01). In contrast, present-fatalistic perspective was negatively and significantly correlated with shooting at posttest (r = −0.346, p < 0.01) and with passing and dribbling (r = −0.269, p < 0.05). A similar pattern was observed at retention for shooting (r = −0.356, p < 0.01), passing (r = −0.244, p < 0.05), and dribbling (r = −0.269, p < 0.05). No significant relationships were found between past-negative perspective and any of the performance measures (p > 0.05).Multiple linear regression analyses indicated that the model predicting posttest passing performance was significant (p < 0.05) and explained 43.2% of the variance, with future time perspective emerging as the only significant positive predictor (β = 0.55, p < 0.05). The retention model was also significant (p < 0.05) and explained 37.8% of the variance; however, none of the time perspective dimensions independently predicted performance (p > 0.05). For shooting skill, the posttest model was significant (p < 0.05) and explained 15.8% of the variance, with future time perspective as a positive predictor (β = 0.46, p < 0.05) and present-fatalistic perspective as a negative predictor (β = −0.22, p < 0.05). This pattern was replicated at retention, where the model was significant (p < 0.05) and explained 25.6% of the variance; future time perspective (β = 0.48, p < 0.05) and present-fatalistic perspective (β = −0.25, p < 0.01) were positive and negative predictors, respectively. For dribbling skill, the posttest model was significant (p < 0.05) and explained 43.7% of the variance, with future time perspective as the only significant positive predictor (β = 0.61, p < 0.01). Similarly, the retention model was significant (p < 0.05) and explained 39.6% of the variance, again identifying future time perspective as the sole significant positive predictor (β = 0.57, p < 0.05).ConclusionOverall, the findings of the present study suggest that the acquisition and performance of fundamental basketball skills emerge from a hierarchical interaction among cognitive, motivational, and behavioral levels within different dimensions of time perspective (TP). In this framework, Future Time Perspective (FTP) serves as a central organizing mechanism of temporal cognition, facilitating stability and improvement in performance and motor skill learning by aligning cognitive, motivational, and behavioral processes in a coherent manner. In contrast, the Present Fatalistic (PF) perspective operates as a multi-level disruptive factor, exerting simultaneous negative effects across cognitive, motivational, and behavioral domains. It disrupts temporal balance and is associated with reduced self-efficacy, lower perceived control, diminished intrinsic motivation, and ultimately impaired performance and motor skill acquisition. Accordingly, the present findings indicate that TP should be regarded as a multi-level regulatory construct of performance. Through the dynamic interplay of cognitive organization (Stolarsky's model), motivational regulation (Self-Determination Theory), and behavioral forces (Lewin's Field Theory), TP is closely linked to the quality of execution and learning of fundamental basketball skills.Article MessageThe findings of this study indicate that improvements in basketball skill performance and learning are not driven solely by practice and experience, but are also closely related to individuals' attitudes and orientations toward time. In this regard, Future Time Perspective (FTP) may function as a facilitating factor by transforming each training session into an opportunity for long-term investment. By enhancing self-regulation and goal-setting processes, it contributes to more effective skill execution and learning. In contrast, a Present Fatalistic (PF) orientation may hinder the full use of training potential, even under well-structured practice conditions. This is mainly due to reduced perceived control and weakened self-efficacy, which can negatively affect both performance and skill acquisition. Accordingly, time perspective-based educational and intervention programs particularly those aimed at strengthening FTP and reducing PF can be considered a complementary, evidence-based approach for improving the execution and learning of fundamental basketball skills.Ethical ConsiderationsThis study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and the guidelines provided by the American Psychological Association (APA). All participants provided informed consent prior to participation, and confidentiality was strictly maintained throughout the research process. The research protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the affiliated university under the code IR.LUMS.REC.1404.182. The study adhered to ethical principles ensuring the respect, dignity, and welfare of all participants.Authors' ContributionsAll authors equally contributed to the conceptualization, data collection, manuscript writing, review and editing, funding acquisition, and project management.Conflict of InterestThe author declares that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article. All procedures were conducted impartially, and no financial or personal relationships influenced the outcomes or interpretations of the research.AcknowledgmentsWe sincerely thank all the respected officials and staff of Lorestan University who assisted us in the implementation of this research.https://mbj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_5043_b6f8dc086b2d60c5856e4ff517060392.pdf