Extended Abstract
Background and Purpose
Population aging poses a significant public health challenge, with functional balance playing a crucial role in the mobility, independence, and quality of life of older adults. Balance is a complex skill that depends not only on sensory and motor systems but also on cognitive and psychological processes. Recent research highlights the influence of age-based stereotypes (ABS) on older adults' performance, particularly through the mechanism of stereotype threat (ST). When negative ABS are activated, older adults may experience anxiety and increased self-monitoring, leading to performance decrements. However, empirical findings regarding the effects of stereotype threat on balance performance remain inconsistent (e.g., Barber & Mather, 2014; Borel et al., 2024).
According to the integrated stereotype threat model (Schmader et al., 2008), stereotype activation consumes cognitive control resources that are otherwise required for effective task execution. Because functional balance—especially in complex tasks—relies on attentional control, working memory, and self-regulation, depletion of these resources may impair postural stability. Despite strong theoretical support, the mediating role of cognitive control resources in the relationship between ABS activation and functional balance has not been directly examined. The present study addresses this gap by investigating whether cognitive control resources mediate the effects of positive and negative age stereotypes on older adults' functional balance using a cognitively demanding balance task.
Methods
This experimental study investigated the effects of ABS on functional balance and cognitive control in older women. The sample consisted of 51 community-dwelling women aged 60 to 76 years (M = 65.92, SD = 3.78), all of whom demonstrated healthy cognitive functioning. At baseline, participants completed the Brief Ageing Perceptions Questionnaire and the Perceived Importance of Physical Activity for Older Adults.
Participants were randomly assigned to one of three ABS conditions: positive, negative, or nullified groups. Prior to task performance, individuals in the experimental groups were exposed to standardized written and verbal instructions designed to activate either positive or negative ABS. The positive ABS condition emphasized the accumulated motor experience of older adults and the preservation of physical abilities, whereas the negative ABS condition highlighted age-related physical decline and explicit comparisons with younger adults. The nullified control group received no information, either implicit or explicit, about ABS.
Functional balance was assessed both before (T1) and after (T2) ABS activation using an advanced version of the Square Stepping Exercise (SSE; Shigematsu & Okura, 2006). This task required participants to execute a predefined sequence of multidirectional steps as quickly and accurately as possible. It was selected due to its sensitivity to motor coordination and executive control demands (see Fig. 1).
Cognitive control was evaluated using a computerized Stroop task (Stroop, 1935), with reaction times for congruent and incongruent stimuli recorded at both measurement points. The effectiveness of the ABS manipulation was verified using a brief two-item manipulation check questionnaire.
Statistical analyses included univariate analyses of variance (ANOVAs) to examine group differences in demographic variables, baseline psychological characteristics, and manipulation-check responses. Changes in functional balance and Stroop performance were analyzed using a 3 (ABS condition: positive, negative, control) × 2 (time: pre-test, post-test) mixed-design ANOVA. Mediation analyses were conducted using the PROCESS macro (Model 4; version 5; Hayes, 2022), with bootstrap resampling, to estimate indirect effects and corresponding confidence intervals.

Fig 1. The advanced sequential stepping pattern used to assess functional balance, adapted from Shigematsu and Okura (2006).
Cognitive control was evaluated using a computerized Stroop task (Stroop, 1935), with reaction times for congruent and incongruent stimuli recorded at both measurement points. The effectiveness of the ABS manipulation was verified using a brief two-item manipulation check questionnaire.
Statistical analyses included univariate analyses of variance (ANOVAs) to examine group differences in demographic variables, baseline psychological characteristics, and manipulation-check responses. Changes in functional balance and Stroop performance were analyzed using a 3 (ABS condition: positive, negative, control) × 2 (time: pre-test, post-test) mixed-design ANOVA. Mediation analyses were conducted using the PROCESS macro (Model 4; version 5; Hayes, 2022), with bootstrap resampling, to estimate indirect effects and corresponding confidence intervals.

Results
The manipulation check confirmed that ABS activations were effective.
Effects of ABS on Functional Balance and Stroop Reaction Time
For functional balance, the results revealed significant main effects of ABS condition, F(2, 48) = 20.54, p < .001, η²ₚ = .46, and time, F(1, 48) = 35.77, p < .001, η²ₚ = .43, as well as a significant interaction, F(2, 48) = 61.32, p < .001, η²ₚ = .72. No significant differences were observed between groups at pre-test (T1). At post-test (T2), however, participants in the negative ABS condition showed significantly slower SSE times compared to both the control group (t = 7.91, p < .001) and the positive ABS group (t = 10.76, p < .001). No significant difference emerged between the positive ABS and control groups (p = .08). Within-group comparisons indicated that SSE times increased significantly from T1 to T2 in the negative ABS group (t = 11.75, p < .001) and decreased in the positive ABS group (t = 3.81, p = .005), whereas the control group showed no significant change (see Fig. 2).
Stroop reaction times followed a similar pattern. At T2, negative ABS participants responded significantly slower than both the control (Mean Difference = 311.29, SE = 39.01, t = 7.98, p < .001) and positive ABS groups (Mean Difference = 381.88, SE = 39.01, t = 9.79, p < .001). In contrast, no difference was observed between the positive ABS and control groups (p > .05). Within-group analyses confirmed that Stroop RT increased from T1 to T2 under negative ABS (t = 10.48, p < .001) and decreased under positive ABS (t = 3.37, p = .02).
Mediation Analysis
Mediation analyses tested whether Stroop RT at T2 mediated the effect of ABS activation on SSE performance at T2. The results showed that negative ABS predicted longer Stroop RT (Path a: B = –190.94, p < .001), which, in turn, predicted slower SSE times (Path b: B = –0.08, p = .01). The direct effect of ABS on SSE time remained significant when controlling for Stroop RT (Path cʹ: B = –36.04, p < .001), indicating partial mediation. The Sobel test (z = 2.46, p = .01) and bootstrap analyses (5,000 resamples) confirmed the significance of the indirect effect (B = –15.99, 95% BCa CI [–30.05, –2.53]; see Fig. 3).
Overall, the results indicated that age-based stereotypes can alter functional balance and cognitive control in older women, with partial mediation by the depletion of cognitive control resources, thereby underscoring the cognitive mechanisms that underlie stereotype-related declines in functional balance.

Fig 2. Mean functional balance time at pretest (T1) and post ABS activation (T2).
Note. Lower values indicate better functional balance. Error bars represent ±1 standard error of the mean (SE).
✶✶✶p <.001 for between-group differences at T2; ……p <.01 and ………p <.001 for significant changes from T1 to T2.
Stroop reaction times followed a similar pattern. At T2, negative ABS participants responded significantly slower than both the control (Mean Difference = 311.29, SE = 39.01, t = 7.98, p <.001) and positive ABS groups (Mean Difference = 381.88, SE = 39.01, t = 9.79, p <.001). In contrast, no difference was observed between the positive ABS and control groups (p >.05). Within-group analyses confirmed that Stroop RT increased from T1 to T2 under negative ABS (t = 10.48, p <.001) and decreased under positive ABS (t = 3.37, p =.02).
Mediation Analysis
Mediation analyses tested whether Stroop RT at T2 mediated the effect of ABS activation on SSE performance at T2. The results showed that negative ABS predicted longer Stroop RT (Path a: B = –190.94, p <.001), which, in turn, predicted slower SSE times (Path b: B = –0.08, p =.01). The direct effect of ABS on SSE time remained significant when controlling for Stroop RT (Path cʹ: B = –36.04, p <.001), indicating partial mediation. The Sobel test (z = 2.46, p =.01) and bootstrap analyses (5,000 resamples) confirmed the significance of the indirect effect (B = –15.99, 95% BCa CI [–30.05, –2.53]; see Fig. 3).


Fig 3. Mediation model depicting the effect of ABS activation (X) on functional balance time (Y), with Stroop reaction time (Stroop-RT) as the mediator (M).
Note. ABS was coded as follows: negative = −1, control = 0, positive = +1. Path coefficients reflect unstandardized regression weights; standard errors are shown in parentheses. **p <.001, *p <.01
Overall, the results indicated that age-based stereotypes can alter functional balance and cognitive control in older women, with partial mediation by the depletion of cognitive control resources, thereby underscoring the cognitive mechanisms that underlie stereotype-related declines in functional balance.
Conclusion
The present findings highlight the central role of age-based stereotypes in shaping functional balance through their impact on cognitive control processes. Rather than reflecting purely biomechanical decline, the observed balance impairments under negative stereotype activation appear to stem from increased cognitive and emotional load. Consistent with self-control and stereotype threat frameworks, negative age cues likely intensified self-monitoring and evaluative concern, thereby diverting limited cognitive resources away from the coordination and planning demands of complex gait. This interpretation is supported by the mediating role of Stroop reaction time, suggesting that depletion of cognitive control constitutes a key mechanism linking stereotype threat to motor instability. Conversely, positive stereotype activation may have reduced perceived task threat and freed regulatory resources, allowing more automatic and efficient motor execution. The fact that stereotype effects emerged primarily in a cognitively demanding stepping task further underscores the importance of task complexity in revealing stereotype-related motor costs. Collectively, these findings suggest that age-related motor vulnerability is not fixed but context-sensitive, and that modifying the evaluative climate may represent a powerful yet underutilized avenue for preserving balance and mobility in older adulthood.
Article Message
This study demonstrates that age-related attitudes extend beyond social beliefs to directly influence cognitive efficiency and motor performance in older adults. Negative attitudes appear to deplete cognitive resources and disrupt balance control, whereas positive attitudes facilitate both cognitive and motor functioning. These findings underscore the significance of supportive environments, age-appropriate messaging, and age-sensitive educational and rehabilitative interventions. Critically, the results suggest that fostering positive beliefs about aging may reduce cognitive–motor vulnerability and promote a more confident and adaptive aging experience.
Ethical Considerations
The Ethics Committee of the University of Isfahan approved the study protocol. https://ethics.research.ac.ir/form/ker6pgt1l9a2eed9.pdf
Authors' Contributions

Literature review: Zakieh Alinaghipour, Hamid Salehi, and Seyyed Mohammad Reza Mousavi
Project manager: Hamid Salehi
Ideation: Hamid Salehi
Data collection: Zakieh Alinaghipour
Data analysis: Zakieh Alinaghipour, Hamid Salehi
Initial writing: Zakieh Alinaghipour, Hamid Salehi
Final review and editing: Zakieh Alinaghipour, Hamid Salehi, and Seyyed Mohammad Reza Mousavi
Literature review: Zakieh Alinaghipour, Hamid Salehi, and Seyyed Mohammad Reza Mousavi
Project management: Hamid Salehi

Conflicts of Interest
The authors report no potential conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgement
The authors express their sincere gratitude to the older people of Mohammad Amin Charity in Isfahan who voluntarily participated in this study.