Comparison of physical and mental practice of movement task according to the type of practice (errorless – errorfull)

Khosrojerdi, Nayereh; Ghamari, Amin; Golzar, Somayeh

doi:10.22089/mbj.2025.16849.2163

Comparison of physical and mental practice of movement task according to the type of practice (errorless – errorfull)

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

nayereh khosrojerdi ¹

amin ghamari ²

Somayeh Golzar ³

¹ M.Sc. Student in Motor Behavior, Faculty of Physical Education, Attar institute Of Higher Education, Mashhad, Iran

² . Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Physical Education, Attar institute Of Higher Education, Mashhad, Iran .

³ Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Mashhad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Mashhad, Iran.

https://doi.org/10.22089/mbj.2025.16849.2163

Abstract

Extended Abstract
Background and Purpose
Physical practice is widely regarded as the primary method for acquiring motor skills. However, research has indicated that skills can also be learned through approaches that do not involve physical execution, one of which is mental practice. According to Schmidt's schema theory, making errors plays a positive role in motor learning; yet, some evidence demonstrates the positive effectiveness of errorless practice as well. This dichotomy raises the question of whether the mechanisms underlying physical and mental practice differ, and whether their effects might depend on the type of training—specifically, errorless or errorful practice. Given this context, the aim of the present study was to compare the effects of physical and mental practice, with respect to both errorless and errorful modalities, on the acquisition and learning of futsal shooting skills.
Methods
This study employed a semi-experimental, field-based design. The statistical population included all non-physical education female students at Islamic Azad University, Mashhad branch, enrolled during the summer term of 1402 (2023). A total of 75 students were recruited by convenience sampling and randomly assigned to five equal groups (n = 15 each): errorless mental practice, errorful mental practice, errorless physical practice, errorful physical practice, and a control group. All participants were between 22 and 25 years old and were classified as beginners, having no prior experience or formal involvement in football-related activities.
Initially, the experimental task was explained to all participants, after which those in the mental practice groups completed the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire 2 (VMIQ-2) to assess their mental imagery ability. The study began with a pre-test comprising 10 futsal shooting trials from a distance of 3.5 meters. Following a five-minute rest period, the acquisition phase was conducted for the experimental groups, each completing one session of 80 trials, organized into eight blocks of 10 trials each; the control group instead engaged in an unrelated computer task. A two-minute break was provided between blocks.
Post-testing was performed in a similar fashion to the pre-test, immediately following the acquisition phase. Participants then completed a self-report sheet (verbal rules) documenting their applied strategies and methods during training. Forty-eight hours later, three additional tests were administered: a retention test (10 shots from six meters), a distance transfer test (10 shots from 6.5 meters), and a secondary transfer test (dual task: counting metronome beats while shooting from six meters), with the order of these tests counterbalanced across participants and a one-minute rest between blocks.
For statistical analysis, a mixed-design analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare group performance across the pre- and post-test phases. A one-way ANOVA assessed differences among groups in the retention and transfer tests, with LSD post-hoc tests employed where necessary to explore significant findings.
Results
Descriptive statistics revealed that both mental practice groups demonstrated relatively high imagery abilities according to VMIQ-2 scores. The results of the 5 × 2 ANOVA (five groups by two test phases) evidenced significant main effects of group (η²p = 0.126, P = 0.049, F(4,70) = 2.512) and phase (η²p = 0.091, P = 0.010, F(1,70) = 7.038), as well as a significant interaction between group and phase (η²p = 0.194, P = 0.004, F(4,70) = 4.201). Critically, there were no group differences in the pre-test (P > 0.05 for all comparisons), affirming homogeneity at baseline. In contrast, post-test comparisons showed that both the errorless mental and errorless physical practice groups significantly outperformed their errorful counterparts (P < 0.05 for both).
One-way ANOVA results also revealed significant group differences in retention (η²p = 0.189, P = 0.008, F(3,56) = 4.337), distance transfer (η²p = 0.188, P = 0.008, F(3,56) = 4.338), and secondary transfer testing (η²p = 0.134, P = 0.011, F(3,56) = 4.092). However, no significant group difference was observed in the self-reported verbal rules (η²p = 0.026, P = 0.747, F(3,56) = 0.409).
Post-hoc analyses confirmed no pre-test differences between groups. In the post-test phase, participants in both the errorless physical and mental practice groups showed superior performance, with means and standard deviations of (M = 150.56, SD = 40.45) and (M = 148.51, SD = 54.74), respectively. For retention, values were (M = 155.28, SD = 49.92) and (M = 156.6, SD = 43.07); for distance transfer, (M = 156.1, SD = 45.18) and (M = 157.62, SD = 29.9); for secondary transfer, (M = 175.73, SD = 40.73) and (M = 176.84, SD = 4.62), all indicating statistically significant improvements compared to the other groups (P < 0.05).
Conclusion
The study’s findings indicate that both mental and physical practice conducted with minimal errors (i.e., errorless practice) result in better acquisition and transfer of futsal shooting skills than errorful practice. Contrary to some contemporary research, these results imply a similar underlying mechanism for mental and physical practice, where errorless learning enhances performance. Additionally, consistent with theories of implicit learning and conscious reprocessing, errorless practice favors task learning and generalization, a finding that contradicts traditional beliefs emphasizing the benefits of trial-and-error or errorful practice.
It appears that the task type—here, a gross motor skill involving targeted shooting—may be optimally learned under errorless conditions, both physically and mentally. This supports the notion that the nature of the task and the modality of practice should be considered in designing motor learning programs and points to the need for further investigation. Based on these results, both physical and mental errorless practice are effective strategies for the acquisition of futsal shooting in novices.
Article Message
The results suggest that futsal shooting—a gross motor, target-based skill—is more effectively acquired by beginners through errorless practice, whether physical or mental. This finding highlights the mechanistic similarity between physical and mental practice, contradicts some prior studies, and suggests that error-minimizing approaches may facilitate enhanced motor learning. Consequently, future research should further explore the interaction of task type and practice modality.
Ethical Considerations
All ethical principles and guidelines in research and scientific publication were scrupulously observed throughout this study.
Authors’ Contributions
The first author contributed 50%, the second author (supervisor) 30%, and the third author 20% to this research.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest associated with this article.
Acknowledgments
This article is derived from the first author’s thesis. The authors extend sincere thanks to Mr. Ghamari (supervisor), Ms. Golzar, Mr. Moghadam (Director of the Physical Education Department, Islamic Azad University of Mashhad), and Ms. Rostamian for their support in data collection, as well as to all participants for their valuable involvement in this study.

Keywords

Errorful Practice

Errorless Practice

Physical Practice

Mental Practice

Subjects

Motor learning

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