Extended Abstract
Background and Purpose
Despite existing evidence on the role of Time Perspective (TP) in sport performance, a systematic examination of its different dimensions in the processes of skill execution and learning particularly in team sports such as basketball remains limited. Accordingly, the present study focused on fundamental basketball skills and aimed to investigate how different TP dimensions are related to skill execution and learning. Examining this relationship may provide valuable insights for coaches and sport psychologists, enabling them to design more effective training and instructional strategies based on athletes' temporal preferences, thereby enhancing learning efficiency and the quality of skill performance. In line with this, the hypothesis of the present study was that, unlike the past-negative and present-fatalistic dimensions, the past-positive, present-hedonistic, and future time perspectives would be positively and significantly associated with levels of basketball skill performance and learning. Therefore, this study sought to examine this pattern in basketball in order to identify a balanced and optimal TP profile for this sport. Such a profile may serve as a practical guideline for designing training and educational programs tailored to the temporal psychological characteristics of basketball players.
Method
This study was applied in nature and employed a quasi-experimental pretest–posttest design with a control group. A basketball training–educational program was implemented as the intervention for the experimental group. The statistical population consisted of 156 students participating in extracurricular physical education programs at Lorestan University. From this population, 80 eligible participants were selected using purposive sampling based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, and were then randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group (n = 40 per group). The experimental group participated in the basketball training–educational program, whereas the control group received no intervention and continued their routine daily activities. The sample size was determined using G*Power software, with a significance level of α = 0.05 and a statistical power of 0.85. The inclusion criteria were male gender, age between 18 and 25 years, enrollment in extracurricular or instructional physical education courses at Lorestan University, no prior professional or team basketball experience, absence of injury or medical conditions affecting physical activity, and informed consent to participate in the study. The exclusion criteria included missing more than three training sessions, occurrence of injury or physical problems during the intervention period, failure to complete the assessments or questionnaires, and withdrawal from participation. Data were collected using the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) and basketball skill tests assessing dribbling, passing, and shooting. All procedures were reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Lorestan University of Medical Sciences (IR.LUMS.REC.1404.182). Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were used to describe the study variables. Repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted to examine the effect of the intervention on basketball skill performance and learning. In addition, Pearson correlation analysis and multiple linear regression (enter method) were used to examine and predict basketball skill performance and learning based on different dimensions of TP. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 26, with the significance level set at 0.05.
Results
Descriptive statistics indicated that the mean age of participants was 20.22 years in the experimental group and 21.50 years in the control group, with relatively low variability in both groups. In the experimental group, mean scores for passing skill showed a progressive increase from pretest to posttest and retention (from 14.38 to 18.08 and 18.20). A similar upward trend was observed for shooting skill, increasing from 11.48 at pretest to 13.98 at posttest and 13.73 at retention. Dribbling performance also improved from 11.48 to 13.58 and 13.75 across the three phases. In contrast, the control group showed no substantial changes across the three skills, with scores remaining stable or slightly decreasing: passing (14.63 to 14.38 and 14.43), shooting (11.63 to 11.43 and 11.58), and dribbling (11.38 to 11.25 and 11.28). Results from the mixed-design repeated-measures ANOVA (time × group) revealed a significant interaction effect for all three skills—passing, shooting, and dribbling (p < 0.001)—with effect sizes ranging from medium to large. This finding indicates that performance changes over time differed between the two groups, and that the intervention program led to significantly greater improvements in fundamental basketball skills in the experimental group compared to the control group.
Pearson correlation analyses showed that future time perspective at posttest was positively and significantly correlated with shooting (r = 0.731, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.632, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.643, p < 0.01). Similar relationships were observed at retention: shooting (r = 0.715, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.588, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.611, p < 0.01). Present-hedonistic perspective was also positively and significantly associated with performance at posttest—shooting (r = 0.587, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.507, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.534, p < 0.01)—and at retention: shooting (r = 0.568, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.465, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.506, p < 0.01). Similarly, past-positive perspective showed significant positive correlations with all three skills at posttest—shooting (r = 0.693, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.563, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.569, p < 0.01)—and at retention: shooting (r = 0.676, p < 0.01), passing (r = 0.537, p < 0.01), and dribbling (r = 0.542, p < 0.01). In contrast, present-fatalistic perspective was negatively and significantly correlated with shooting at posttest (r = −0.346, p < 0.01) and with passing and dribbling (r = −0.269, p < 0.05). A similar pattern was observed at retention for shooting (r = −0.356, p < 0.01), passing (r = −0.244, p < 0.05), and dribbling (r = −0.269, p < 0.05). No significant relationships were found between past-negative perspective and any of the performance measures (p > 0.05).
Multiple linear regression analyses indicated that the model predicting posttest passing performance was significant (p < 0.05) and explained 43.2% of the variance, with future time perspective emerging as the only significant positive predictor (β = 0.55, p < 0.05). The retention model was also significant (p < 0.05) and explained 37.8% of the variance; however, none of the time perspective dimensions independently predicted performance (p > 0.05). For shooting skill, the posttest model was significant (p < 0.05) and explained 15.8% of the variance, with future time perspective as a positive predictor (β = 0.46, p < 0.05) and present-fatalistic perspective as a negative predictor (β = −0.22, p < 0.05). This pattern was replicated at retention, where the model was significant (p < 0.05) and explained 25.6% of the variance; future time perspective (β = 0.48, p < 0.05) and present-fatalistic perspective (β = −0.25, p < 0.01) were positive and negative predictors, respectively. For dribbling skill, the posttest model was significant (p < 0.05) and explained 43.7% of the variance, with future time perspective as the only significant positive predictor (β = 0.61, p < 0.01). Similarly, the retention model was significant (p < 0.05) and explained 39.6% of the variance, again identifying future time perspective as the sole significant positive predictor (β = 0.57, p < 0.05).
Conclusion
Overall, the findings of the present study suggest that the acquisition and performance of fundamental basketball skills emerge from a hierarchical interaction among cognitive, motivational, and behavioral levels within different dimensions of time perspective (TP). In this framework, Future Time Perspective (FTP) serves as a central organizing mechanism of temporal cognition, facilitating stability and improvement in performance and motor skill learning by aligning cognitive, motivational, and behavioral processes in a coherent manner. In contrast, the Present Fatalistic (PF) perspective operates as a multi-level disruptive factor, exerting simultaneous negative effects across cognitive, motivational, and behavioral domains. It disrupts temporal balance and is associated with reduced self-efficacy, lower perceived control, diminished intrinsic motivation, and ultimately impaired performance and motor skill acquisition. Accordingly, the present findings indicate that TP should be regarded as a multi-level regulatory construct of performance. Through the dynamic interplay of cognitive organization (Stolarsky's model), motivational regulation (Self-Determination Theory), and behavioral forces (Lewin's Field Theory), TP is closely linked to the quality of execution and learning of fundamental basketball skills.
Article Message
The findings of this study indicate that improvements in basketball skill performance and learning are not driven solely by practice and experience, but are also closely related to individuals' attitudes and orientations toward time. In this regard, Future Time Perspective (FTP) may function as a facilitating factor by transforming each training session into an opportunity for long-term investment. By enhancing self-regulation and goal-setting processes, it contributes to more effective skill execution and learning. In contrast, a Present Fatalistic (PF) orientation may hinder the full use of training potential, even under well-structured practice conditions. This is mainly due to reduced perceived control and weakened self-efficacy, which can negatively affect both performance and skill acquisition. Accordingly, time perspective-based educational and intervention programs particularly those aimed at strengthening FTP and reducing PF can be considered a complementary, evidence-based approach for improving the execution and learning of fundamental basketball skills.
Ethical Considerations
This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and the guidelines provided by the American Psychological Association (APA). All participants provided informed consent prior to participation, and confidentiality was strictly maintained throughout the research process. The research protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the affiliated university under the code IR.LUMS.REC.1404.182. The study adhered to ethical principles ensuring the respect, dignity, and welfare of all participants.
Authors' Contributions
All authors equally contributed to the conceptualization, data collection, manuscript writing, review and editing, funding acquisition, and project management.
Conflict of Interest
The author declares that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article. All procedures were conducted impartially, and no financial or personal relationships influenced the outcomes or interpretations of the research.
Acknowledgments
We sincerely thank all the respected officials and staff of Lorestan University who assisted us in the implementation of this research.