نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی

نویسندگان

1 گروه رفتار حرکتی دانشگاه اصفهان

2 دانشگاه اصفهان

3 عضو هیات دانشگاه اصفهان

چکیده

بر اساس نظریه اپتیمال، سه عامل، یعنی انتظارات بهبودیافته، حمایت خودمختاری و توجه بیرونی، نقش کلیدی در تسهیل عملکرد حرکتی و یادگیری دارند؛ بنابراین، هدف پژوهش حاضر بررسی اثر بهینه‌سازی عملکرد از طریق ارائه متوالی انتظارات بهبودیافته، حمایت خودمختاری و توجه بیرونی بر یادگیری تکلیف مربع گام برداری در کودکان بود. تعداد 24 کودک (22 دختر، 2 پسر) با میانگین سنی 58/0 ± 16/10 به روش نمونه‌گیری در دسترس انتخاب و به‌طور تصادفی در دو گروه اپتیمال و کنترل جای‌داده شدند. همه شرکت‌کنندگان 36 کوشش (12×3) را در طول مرحله اکتساب انجام دادند. در این مرحله شرکت‌کنندگان گروه اپتیمال در هر یک از سه بلوک، به‌صورت موازنه متقابل یکی از شرایط انتظارات بهبودیافته، حمایت خودمختاری و توجه بیرونی را دریافت ‌کردند. شرکت‌کنندگان در طول مراحل یادداری و انتقال، 12 کوشش را انجام دادند. برای تجزیه‌وتحلیل داده‌های جمع‌آوری‌شده از تحلیل واریانس با اندازه‌گیری‌های مکرر و تحلیل واریانس یک‌طرفه استفاده شد. نتایج تحقیق نشان داد در طول مرحله اکتساب، تفاوت معنی‌داری بین میانگین زمان تکلیف گام برداری در بلوک‌های آزمایشی متوالی در گروه‌های اپتیمال و کنترل وجود نداشت و همچنین عملکرد در شرایط انتظارات بهبودیافته، حمایت خودمختاری و توجه بیرونی در هر دو گروه تفاوت معنی‌داری نداشت. همچنین نتایج آزمون‌های یادداری و انتقال تفاوت معنی‌داری را بین گروه‌ها نشان نداد؛ بنابراین به نظر می‌رسد استفاده از عوامل کلیدی نظریه اپتیمال به‌صورت متوالی در طول تمرین نمی‌تواند مداخله مناسبی برای یادگیری مهارت‌های حرکتی در کودکان باشد.

کلیدواژه‌ها

موضوعات

عنوان مقاله [English]

Effect of optimizing performance through enhanced expectancies, autonomy support, and external attentional focus on learning a motor skill in children.

نویسندگان [English]

  • fatemeh taghiyan fini 1
  • maryam nezakat alhosseini 2
  • Shila Safavi Hamami 3

1 department of motor behavior univercity of esfahan

2 Isfahan university

3 Faculty member of University of Isfahan

چکیده [English]

According to Optimal theory, three factors, namely Enhanced Expectancies, Autonomy Support, and External Focus play a key role to facilitate motor performance and learning. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of optimizing performance through consecutive providing of enhanced expectancies, autonomy support and external attentional focus on learning the square-stepping task in children. A number of 24 children (22 girls and 2 boys) with a mean age of 10.16 ± 0.58 were selected through convenience sampling and were randomly assigned to optimized and control groups. All participants performed 36 trials (3×12) during the practice phase. Optimized group participants were then provided a different condition for each of three acquisition blocks in a counterbalanced order. During the retention and transfer phases, they performed 12 trails. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures and one-way analysis of variance were used to analyze the collected data. During the practice phase, there was no significant difference between the mean time of the square-stepping task across consecutive trial blocks in the optimal and control groups, and also performance under EE, AS, and EF conditions was not significantly different in both groups. In addition, results of the retention and transfer tests showed no significant difference between groups. Therefore, it seems that using key factors of the Optimal theory in a sequential manner throughout practice cannot be an appropriate intervention for motor skills learning in children.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Autonomy Support
  • Enhanced Expectancies
  • External Focus of Attention
  • Optimal Theory
  • Square-Stepping Exercises
  1. Arsham S, Sarabandi M, Sanaei F. The effect of social-comparative feedback and autonomy support on self-efficacy and children motor learning. J Res Behav Sci. 2018;15(4):443-51.(In Persian).
  2. Abdollahipour R, Palomo Nieto M, Psotta R, Wulf G. External focus of attention and autonomy support have additive benefits for motor performance in children. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2017;32:17-24.
  3. Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychon Bull Rev. 2016;23(5):1382-414.
  4. Abdollahipour R, Valtr L, Wulf G. Optimizing bowling performance. J Mot Learn Dev. 2019;8(2):233-44.
  5. Lewthwaite R, Wulf G. Optimizing motivation and attention for motor performance and learning. Curr Opin Psychol. 2017;16:38-42.
  6. Ávila LTG, Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. Positive social-comparative feedback enhances motor learning in children. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2012;13(6):849-53.
  7. Deci EL, Ryan RM. Self-determination theory: a macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Can Psychol. 2008;49(3):182-5.
  8. Wulf G. Attentional focus and motor learning: a review of 15 years. Int Rev Sport Exerc Psychol. 2013;6(1):77-104.
  9. Hadler R, Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G, Schild JFG. Children's learning of tennis skills is facilitated by external focus instructions. Motriz. 2014;20:418-22.
  10. Pascua LAM, Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. Additive benefits of external focus and enhanced performance expectancy for motor learning. J Sports Sci. 2015;33(1):58-66.
  11. Wulf G, Chiviacowsky S, Cardozo PL. Additive benefits of autonomy support and enhanced expectancies for motor learning. Hum Mov Sci. 2014;37:12-20.
  12. Wulf G, Chiviacowsky S, Drews R. External focus and autonomy support: Two important factors in motor learning have additive benefits. Hum Mov Sci. 2015;40:176-84.
  13. Marchant DC, Carnegie E, Wood G, Ellison P. Influence of visual illusion and attentional focusing instruction in motor performance. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2019;17(6):659-69.
  14. Wulf G, Lewthwaite R, Cardozo P, Chiviacowsky S. Triple play: additive contributions of enhanced expectancies, autonomy support, and external attentional focus to motor learning. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove). 2018;71(4):824-31.
  15. Chua L-K, Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. Onward and upward: Optimizing motor performance. Hum Mov Sci. 2018;60:107-14.
  16. Singh H, Hockwald A, Drake N, Avedesian J, Lee S-P, Wulf G. Maximal force production requires OPTIMAL conditions. Hum Mov Sci. 2020;73:102661.
  17. An J, Chua L-K, Wulf G. Optimising golf putting. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2021;19(5):882-94.
  18. Leotti LA, Delgado MR. The inherent reward of choice. Psychol Sci. 2011;22(10):1310-8.
  19. Kim W, Chang Y, Kim J, Seo J, Ryu K, Lee E, et al. An fMRI study of differences in brain activity among elite, expert, and novice archers at the moment of optimal aiming. Cogn Behav Neurol. 2014;27(4):173-82.
  20. Lohse KR, Sherwood DE, Healy AF. Neuromuscular effects of shifting the focus of attention in a simple force production task. J Mot Behav. 2011;43(2):173-84.
  21. Menon V, Uddin LQ. Saliency, switching, attention and control: a network model of insula function. Brain Struct Funct. 2010;214(5):655-67.
  22. Honarmand A, Safavi Hamami SH. The effect of of attention instruction type , feedback and autonomy on children's motor learning. Sport Sciences Research Institute. 2020;12(3):365-78. (In Persian).
  23. Bahmani M, Wulf G, Ghadiri F, Karimi S, Lewthwaite R. Enhancing performance expectancies through visual illusions facilitates motor learning in children. Hum Mov Sci. 2017;55:1-7.
  24. Petranek LJ, Bolter ND, Bell K. Attentional focus and feedback frequency among first graders in physical education. J Teach Phys Educ. 2019;38(3):199-206.
  25. Fathi Khatab S, Ghasemi A, Mousavi Sadati SK. The effect of focus instructions on dart throwing performance in children with and without developmental coordination disorder. Ann Appl Sport Sci. 2018;6(2):55-60.
  26. Simpson T, Ellison P, Carnegie E, Marchant D. A systematic review of motivational and attentional variables on children’s fundamental movement skill development: the OPTIMAL theory. Int Rev Sport Exerc Psychol. 2021;14(1):312-58.
  27. Thomas JR. Acquisition of motor skills: information processing differences between children and adults. Res Q Exerc Sport. 1980;51(1):158-73.
  28. Chi MT. Age differences in the speed of processing: a critique. Developmental Psychology. 1977;13(5):543.
  29. Cowan N, Fristoe NM, Elliott EM, Brunner RP, Saults JS. Scope of attention, control of attention, and intelligence in children and adults. Mem Cognit. 2006;34(8):1754-68.
  30. Plude DJ, Enns JT, Brodeur D. The development of selective attention: a life-span overview. Acta Psychol (Amst). 1994;86(2):227-72.
  31. Thomas JR, Mitchell B, Solmon MA. Precision knowledge of results and motor performance: Relationship to age. Res Q. 1979;50(4):687-98.
  32. Adams JA. Motor skills. Annu Rev Psychol. 1964;15(1):181-202.
  33. Fitts PM. The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement. J Exp Psychol. 1954;47(6):381-91.
  34. Guadagnoli MA, Lee TD. Challenge point: a framework for conceptualizing the effects of various practice conditions in motor learning. J Mot Behav. 2004;36(2):212-24.
  35. Shigematsu R, Okura T. A novel exercise for improving lower-extremity functional fitness in the elderly. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2006;18(3):242-8.
  36. Friedman D, Nessler D, Cycowicz YM, Horton C. Development of and change in cognitive control: A comparison of children, young adults, and older adults. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci. 2009;9(1):91-102.
  37. Tse AC. Effects of attentional focus on motor learning in children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism. 2019;23(2):405-12.
  38. Lohani S, Martig AK, Underhill SM, DeFrancesco A, Roberts MJ, Rinaman L, et al. Burst activation of dopamine neurons produces prolonged post-burst availability of actively released dopamine. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2018;43(10):2083-92.
  39. Bernstein NA, Latash ML, Turvey MT. Dexterity and its development. London: Psychology Press; 2014.
  40. Bolger LE, Bolger LA, O’Neill C, Coughlan E, O’Brien W, Lacey S, et al. Accuracy of children’s perceived skill competence and its association with physical activity. J Phys Act Health. 2019;16(1):29-36.
  41. Lewthwaite R, Chiviacowsky S, Drews R, Wulf G. Choose to move: the motivational impact of autonomy support on motor learning. Psychon Bull Rev. 2015;22(5):1383-8.
  42. Hooyman A, Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. Impacts of autonomy-supportive versus controlling instructional language on motor learning. Hum Mov Sci. 2014;36:190-8.
  43. Ikudome S, Kou K, Ogasa K, Mori S, Nakamoto H. The effect of choice on motor learning for learners with different levels of intrinsic motivation. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2019;41(3):159-66.
  44. Ziv G, Ochayon M, Lidor R. Enhanced or diminished expectancies in golf putting–Which actually affects performance? Psychol Sport Exerc. 2019;40:82-6.
  45. Thomas JR. 1999 CH McCloy research lecture: children's control, learning, and performance of motor skills. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2000;71(1):1-9.
  46. Simpson T, Cronin L, Ellison P, Carnegie E, Marchant D. A test of optimal theory on young adolescents' standing long jump performance and motivation. Hum Mov Sci. 2020;72:102651.