نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی
نویسندگان
گروه رفتار حرکتی و مدیریت ورزشی، دانشکده علوم ورزشی، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران
کلیدواژهها
موضوعات
عنوان مقاله English
نویسندگان English
Background and Purpose
Action observation and motor imagery (AOMI) is a combined motor simulation technique wherein individuals simultaneously observe an action and imagine performing it. This dual engagement has been shown to facilitate motor learning and performance more effectively than either technique alone. Presenting the movement via high-resolution video enhances the clarity of visual information, allowing individuals to allocate cognitive resources more efficiently and synchronize imagined motor sensations with observed actions. This synergy strengthens motor skill acquisition by reinforcing the neural representation of movement. Moreover, utilizing accurate and context-relevant models enables learners to better interpret and internalize movement patterns, promoting improved skill acquisition and retention.
Feedforward video self-modeling, a technique displaying oneself performing at a level not yet achieved, represents a promising variation within AOMI interventions. This study aimed to investigate the effect of feedforward self-modeling combined with action observation and motor imagery on self-efficacy and the learning of basketball free throws in children.
Methods
Two hundred and ten male students in Shahinshahr, Isfahan were initially assessed using the Children’s Motor Imagery Questionnaire (CMIQ). From this cohort, seventy-two students (mean age: 11.63 ± 1.12 years) were selected through convenience sampling based on CMIQ scores. These participants were randomly assigned to six groups:
Feedforward self-modeling with simultaneous AOMI
Feedforward self-modeling with alternating AOMI
Non-feedforward self-modeling with simultaneous AOMI
Non-feedforward self-modeling with alternating AOMI
Skilled model with simultaneous AOMI
Skilled model with alternating AOMI
Written informed consent was obtained from participants and their parents. Prior to intervention, participants completed a self-efficacy questionnaire.
All participants undertook a 10-hour motor imagery training program. Subsequently, a qualified coach instructed the group on basketball free throws. Scoring criteria for the free throw test were explained, and initial performance was recorded as two blocks of ten free throws.
For the feedforward and non-feedforward self-modeling groups, basketball free throws were video-recorded. Videos for feedforward groups were edited to display the participants executing throws with enhanced skill quality.
During the six-week intervention, participants practiced free throws three times per week, completing 40 attempts per session. Feedforward self-modeling groups watched their edited videos and engaged in simultaneous or alternating motor imagery (MI) using the PETTLEP model. Non-feedforward self-modeling groups viewed unedited videos of their actual throws, while skilled model groups observed expert performances, pairing these with PETTLEP-guided MI.
Post-intervention testing was conducted immediately after the final session, with retention and transfer tests administered after one week. Data were analyzed via mixed-model analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Results
Mean basketball free throw scores for the experimental and control groups are shown in Figure 1 for the pretest, posttest, retention, and transfer tests.
Figure 1 – The mean Basketball free throw score in different tests of the research
Results
Figure 1 illustrates mean basketball free throw scores for each group across pre-test, post-test, retention, and transfer assessments, showing improvements from all modeling conditions.
Imagery ability questionnaire analysis revealed no significant group differences in internal imagery (F(5,71) = 0.656, p = 0.658), external imagery (F(5,71) = 1.469, p = 0.212), or kinesthetic imagery (F(5,71) = 1.995, p = 0.091). Following exercise sessions, participants self-reported MI engagement and completed imagery fidelity assessments. Multivariate ANOVA confirmed no significant between-group differences in overall imagery ability.
Mixed-design ANOVA for basketball free throw scores demonstrated significant main effects for time (F(3,198) = 27.83, p = 0.001) and group (F(5,66) = 29, p = 0.001), but no significant group × time interaction (F(15,198) = 2.93, p = 0.14). Post hoc testing indicated superior performance in the feedforward self-modeling simultaneous AOMI (p = 0.001), feedforward alternating AOMI (p = 0.001), skilled model simultaneous AOMI (p = 0.001), and skilled model alternating AOMI (p = 0.001) groups relative to non-feedforward simultaneous and alternating AOMI groups. Additionally, feedforward simultaneous AOMI outperformed skilled model simultaneous AOMI (p = 0.01).
Similarly, mixed-design ANOVA for self-efficacy revealed significant main effects for time (F (2,132) = 10.02, p = 0.001) and group (F(5,66) = 28.09, p = 0.001), with no interaction effect (F (10,132) = 0.65, p = 0.6). Post hoc analyses showed self-efficacy improvements in feedforward simultaneous and alternating AOMI and skilled model simultaneous and alternating AOMI groups compared to non-feedforward groups (all p = 0.001).
Conclusion
Across all groups, mean basketball free throw scores improved from pre-test to post-test, retention, and transfer phases. Scott et al. (2020) demonstrated that combining action observation and motor imagery enhances movement practice efficacy in children with diverse motor abilities beyond either method alone. This synergy enhances attentional focus and kinematic processing of observed movements, facilitating superior learning outcomes.
Research in observational learning emphasizes the model’s characteristics—including skill similarity to the learner and distinction between self and other—as determinants of performance and motor skill acquisition. Self-modeling videos within an AOMI framework likely bolster performance and self-efficacy by allowing individuals to observe themselves performing successfully beyond their current skill level. This dual engagement creates a unique sensorimotor experience that transcends conventional practice conditions, enabling acquisition of proficient motor skills.
Article Message
This study demonstrates that combining action observation with motor imagery (simultaneously or alternately) significantly enhances motor skill performance and self-efficacy in children. Practitioners, including physical education teachers and coaches, are encouraged to integrate diverse AOMI protocols into training regimens. Moreover, sports coaches can optimize self-modeling interventions by employing advanced video editing techniques. Incorporating feedforward video self-modeling together with AOMI yields greater improvement in basketball free throw performance than strategies relying solely on skilled or non-feedforward self-modeling.
Ethical Considerations
This study was conducted with approval from the University of Isfahan Ethics Committee (Code: IR.UI.REC.1403.047). Informed consent was obtained from all participants and their guardians. Confidentiality was rigorously maintained.
Authors’ Contributions
Mehdi RafeiBoroujeni, Abdalreza Heidary, and Maryam Nezakatalhosaini conceptualized the study. Data collection was performed by Abdalreza Heidary; data analysis was led by Mehdi RafeiBoroujeni. Manuscript drafting was conducted by Abdalreza Heidary and Mehdi RafeiBoroujeni. Review and editing were performed by all three authors. Literature review was carried out collaboratively. Mehdi RafeiBoroujeni supervised and coordinated all research activities.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest relevant to this study’s research, authorship, or publication.
Acknowledgments
The authors express heartfelt appreciation to all participating children for their commitment, as well as those who provided guidance and support throughout the research process.
کلیدواژهها English
