Extended Abstract
Background and Purpose
Physical activity and regular exercise are among the most effective components of a healthy lifestyle, contributing significantly to both physical and psychological well-being. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that adults engage in at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity activity per week to reap health benefits. Despite these benefits, sedentary behavior remains a major public health concern, particularly among women, who face cultural, social, and logistical barriers that limit their participation in exercise. In Iran, women encounter additional challenges due to cultural and social norms, limited dedicated spaces, and family obligations. Motivation plays a critical role in sustaining engagement in physical activity, with intrinsic motivation being especially important for long-term adherence. According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), fulfilling the basic psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness enhances autonomous motivation and promotes consistent exercise behavior. Exercise programs that are varied, challenging, and enjoyable are more likely to foster intrinsic motivation and adherence. Among these, calisthenics, which utilizes bodyweight movements, and conventional resistance training have shown potential to improve physical fitness and enhance motivation. This study aimed to compare the effects of calisthenics and conventional resistance training on sports participation motivation and its dimensions among overweight middle-aged women.
Methods
A quasi-experimental study with a pre-test–post-test design and two intervention groups was conducted to examine the effects of calisthenics and conventional resistance training on motivation and exercise adherence in overweight middle-aged women. The study population consisted of women aged 30–40 years with a body mass index (BMI) between 25 and 30, who regularly attended sports clubs in Isfahan in 2024 (1403). Sixty participants were purposefully recruited based on their willingness to participate and were randomly assigned to either the calisthenics group (n = 30) or the conventional resistance training group (n = 30). Eligibility criteria included general good health, no history of cardiovascular or musculoskeletal disorders, and no regular engagement in resistance training over the past six months. Participants with more than three absences during the intervention were excluded.
Both groups completed an eight-week exercise program comprising three 75-minute sessions per week. Each session included a 10–15-minute warm-up, 45–50 minutes of main exercise, and 5–10 minutes of cool-down. Calisthenics sessions involved bodyweight exercises such as push-ups, squats, lunges, planks, pull-ups, and dips. Exercise intensity was controlled at 55–70% of heart rate reserve (HRR, based on the Karvonen formula), with progressive overload applied approximately every two weeks (5% increase) to ensure continual adaptation. The resistance training group performed structured exercises using free weights and resistance machines, targeting major muscle groups including chest, back, arms, and legs, with intensity matched to the calisthenics group (55–70% of 1RM or target repetitions). All sessions were supervised by the researcher and a specialist coach with a master's degree and over five years of experience.
Motivation was assessed using the validated Iranian version of the Sports Participation Motivation Questionnaire (PMQ), comprising 30 items and 8 subdimensions related to intrinsic and extrinsic factors, with Cronbach's alpha reliability ranging from 0.78 to 0.86. Anthropometric measures, including height (using SECA stadiometer, 0.1 cm precision), weight (using SECA scale, 0.1 kg precision), and BMI, were recorded using standardized procedures. Pre-test measurements were taken before the intervention, and post-test assessments were conducted immediately after the eight-week program. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics to summarize participant characteristics, paired t-tests for within-group comparisons, Kolmogorov–Smirnov for normality, and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with pre-test as covariate, checking assumptions of homogeneity of slopes and variances to examine between-group differences. Bonferroni post hoc tests were used for adjusted mean comparisons. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05, and effect sizes (partial eta squared, η²) were calculated to determine the magnitude of observed differences. All analyses were performed using SPSS version 26.
Results
Both intervention groups exhibited significant improvements in overall sports participation motivation as well as across all subdimensions following the eight-week intervention (p < 0.001). In the calisthenics group, the mean motivation score increased from 52.10 ± 6.85 at pre-test to 76.66 ± 6.25 at post-test (t (29) = -34.10, p < 0.001). In the resistance training group, the mean motivation score increased from 52.13 ± 7.38 to 68.43 ± 7.95 (t (29) = -34.49, p < 0.001). Paired t-tests indicated statistically significant within-group improvements in all subdimensions, including achievement (calisthenics: t = -11.36; resistance: t = -11.93), group orientation (calisthenics: t = -11.35; resistance: t = -16.90), readiness (calisthenics: t = -11.42; resistance: t = -4.22), energy release (calisthenics: t = -21.91; resistance: t = -18.49), situational factors (calisthenics: t = -12.24; resistance: t = -6.43), skill improvement (calisthenics: t = -33.65; resistance: t = -10.49), friendship (calisthenics: t = -15.12; resistance: t = -12.28), and recreation (calisthenics: t = -35.32; resistance: t = -11.61) (all p < 0.001). These results demonstrate that both types of training effectively enhanced motivational outcomes, with calisthenics producing more pronounced gains.
Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) controlling for pre-test scores revealed that post-test motivation was significantly higher in the calisthenics group compared to the resistance training group (F (1,56) = 48.205, p < 0.001, η² = 0.491, power = 1.000). Adjusted mean difference: calisthenics 75.97 vs. resistance 69.13 (p < 0.001). Effect size estimates indicated that calisthenics improved overall motivation by approximately 49% more than conventional resistance training. Subdimension effect sizes favored calisthenics as follows: achievement (F = 6.120, p = 0.017, η² = 0.109, power = 0.679), group orientation (F = 2.473, p = 0.047, η² = 0.047, power = 0.338), readiness (F = 8.648, p = 0.005, η² = 0.147, power = 0.822), energy release (F = 4.921, p = 0.031, η² = 0.090, power = 0.585), situational factors (F = 4.692, p = 0.035, η² = 0.086, power = 0.565), skill improvement (F = 19.780, p = 0.001, η² = 0.283, power = 0.992), friendship (F = 10.980, p = 0.002, η² = 0.180, power = 0.901), and recreation (F = 5.066, p = 0.029, η² = 0.092, power = 0.598). Bonferroni post hoc analysis confirmed that all adjusted mean differences between groups were statistically significant (p < 0.05). Table 1 provides a detailed summary of pre- and post-test scores for both intervention groups. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the line chart comparisons of pre- and post-test motivation scores for the calisthenics and resistance training groups, respectively, showing a steeper upward trajectory for the calisthenics group across all subdimensions.
Overall, the results indicate that while both calisthenics and conventional resistance training significantly increase sports participation motivation, calisthenics offers greater improvements across all measured dimensions with adequate statistical power. These outcomes suggest that the dynamic, bodyweight-based, and group-oriented nature of calisthenics may contribute to more substantial gains in intrinsic motivation and adherence potential. Such evidence supports the implementation of calisthenics-based interventions in programs targeting overweight middle-aged women, particularly when the aim is to maximize sustained engagement in physical activity.










Table 1. Pre- and post-test motivation scores





Variable


Calisthenics Pre-test


Calisthenics Post-test


Resistance Training Pre-test


Resistance Training Post-test




Motivation


52.10 ± 6.85


76.66 ± 6.25


52.13 ± 7.38


68.43 ± 7.95




Achievement


10.36 ± 2.47


14.10 ± 2.78


9.83 ± 2.85


12.13 ± 2.59




Group orientation


4.50 ± 1.07


7.26 ± 1.53


5.23 ± 1.43


6.90 ± 1.34




Readiness


5.80 ± 1.44


8.63 ± 0.92


6.10 ± 1.15


7.40 ± 1.90




Energy release


9.33 ± 1.49


12.50 ± 1.54


9.10 ± 1.74


11.70 ± 2.00




Situational factors


5.30 ± 1.20


7.90 ± 0.95


6.00 ± 1.17


7.40 ± 1.22




Skill improvement


5.63 ± 0.76


8.46 ± 0.86


4.83 ± 1.23


7.06 ± 1.33




Friendship


5.83 ± 1.48


9.36 ± 1.63


5.40 ± 1.45


7.80 ± 1.24




Recreation


5.33 ± 0.84


8.43 ± 0.77


5.63 ± 1.21


8.03 ± 1.06





Conclusion
This study demonstrated that both calisthenics and conventional resistance training significantly enhance sports participation motivation among overweight middle-aged women (p < 0.001). Notably, calisthenics led to greater improvements across all motivation subdimensions (ANCOVA: F up to 48.205, p < 0.001, η² up to 0.491), likely due to its intrinsic characteristics, including bodyweight-based movements, dynamic exercise variety, group-oriented sessions, and progressive challenges. These features effectively satisfy the psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness, thereby fostering intrinsic motivation and promoting sustained exercise adherence. The findings highlight calisthenics as a practical, low-cost, and engaging intervention for female exercisers seeking to improve both physical fitness and long-term participation. Incorporating diverse, socially interactive, and adaptable programs into training regimes can further enhance motivation, reduce common participation barriers, and support overall well-being. Future research should explore long-term effects, hybrid training approaches, and qualitative experiences to deepen understanding of motivational mechanisms, providing more comprehensive guidance for designing effective exercise programs tailored to women's needs.
Article Message
This study demonstrates that calisthenics training is significantly more effective than conventional resistance training in enhancing exercise motivation and adherence among overweight middle-aged women. The bodyweight-based, varied, and socially interactive nature of calisthenics better satisfies fundamental psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness, leading to stronger intrinsic motivation. These findings support implementing calisthenics as a practical, cost-effective strategy to promote long-term physical activity participation in women, addressing key barriers to exercise adherence. Fitness professionals should consider incorporating calisthenics into women's exercise programming to maximize sustained engagement and overall well-being.


Ethical Considerations
This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Islamic Azad University, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch (Code: IR.IAU.KHUISF.REC.1403.356). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. Data were anonymized and handled confidentially. Participants could withdraw at any time without penalty.
Authors' Contributions
Behnaz Pour Hemmat and Zahra Serjuei conceptualized the study. Data collection was conducted by both authors. Data analysis was performed by Behnaz Pour Hemmat and Zahra Serjuei. Manuscript drafting was carried out by both authors. Review and editing were undertaken by Behnaz Pour Hemmat and Zahra Serjuei. Literature review was conducted collaboratively. Project administration was led by Zahra Serjuei
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
We sincerely thank all participants and the sports facilities in Isfahan for their cooperation and support.