بررسی رویکردهای خودکنترل در یادگیری و انگیزش ورزشی؛ با تأکید بر نقش هدف‌گزینی

Extended Abstract
Background and Purpose
Self-control approaches are increasingly recognized as effective strategies to enhance motivational quality—particularly intrinsic motivation—and to facilitate more optimal learning outcomes among learners. These approaches, which have proven effective in the acquisition of motor skills, are closely linked to motivational structures, making their investigation essential for improving both motivation and learning quality. Within the framework of self-control, goal setting emerges as a critical self-regulation technique that enables individuals to actively guide their progress toward self-determined objectives. This form of learning engages the learner as an active participant in the process. Goal setting functions as a motivational variable by fostering increased effort through both cognitive and motivational pathways. The present study aimed to examine the effects of self-control approaches, with a particular focus on goal setting, on motor learning and sports motivation.
 
Methods
This quasi-experimental study was practical in nature and conducted in a field setting. The sample consisted of 50 male participants aged between 18 and 28 years, all of whom had no prior experience in organized football training. Initially, a pre-test was administered to all participants. Subsequently, they were systematically assigned to one of five groups based on a quasi-experimental design: self-control performance goal setting, coach-controlled performance goal setting, self-control outcome goal setting, coach-controlled outcome goal setting, and control (no goal setting). The leg side pass test was employed to assess motor skill acquisition, while the Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire-6 (BRSQ-6) developed by Lonsdale et al. was used to measure sports motivation.
The acquisition phase consisted of 15 sessions, each comprising 30 attempts divided into three blocks of 10 attempts, with one minute of rest between blocks and five seconds of rest between attempts. Participants were given one day of rest between sessions. Prior to training, participants were briefed on the general principles of goal setting and instructed on how to apply it. The four types of goal setting were defined as follows:

Self-control performance: focusing on improving individual performance according to the learner’s own choice.
Coach-controlled performance: focusing on improving individual performance as directed by the coach.
Self-control outcome: focusing on achieving the highest score based on the learner’s own choice.
Coach-controlled outcome: focusing on achieving the highest score as directed by the coach.

All groups trained under identical conditions. Following the 15 training sessions, immediate post-tests for soccer passing skill acquisition and sports motivation were conducted. Retention and transfer tests were administered 72 hours later. Due to the normal distribution of data during the acquisition phase, a two-way mixed ANOVA (5 groups × 2 stages) was used for analysis. One-way ANOVA was applied for the retention and transfer phases.
 
Results
The two-way ANOVA on the acquisition phase revealed that although all groups improved their performance, no statistically significant differences were observed between groups (F(4,45) = 0.108, p = 0.979, η² = 0.010). However, one-way ANOVA indicated significant differences between groups during both retention and transfer phases. Tukey’s post hoc test demonstrated that the self-control goal-setting and coach-controlled intervention groups outperformed the control group significantly (p < 0.05), with the self-control performance group achieving the highest scores among all groups.
Regarding motivation, although mean post-test scores improved relative to pre-test scores during the acquisition phase, no significant differences were found between groups (F (4,45) = 0.768, p = 0.552, η² = 0.064). Conversely, one-way ANOVA revealed significant group differences in motivation during retention and transfer phases. Post hoc analysis confirmed that the self-control goal-setting and coach-controlled groups exhibited significantly higher motivation than the control group
(p < 0.05).
 
Conclusion
These findings align with Locke and Latham’s Goal Setting Theory, which posits that goal setting enhances performance and learning through four mechanisms: direction, persistence, energy mobilization, and strategy development. The superior performance of self-control groups suggests that learners’ perception of autonomy and control positively influences learning outcomes, supporting Choice Theory’s emphasis on the role of autonomy in motivation and behavior. The observed increases in motivation within self-control groups are consistent with Self-Determination Theory, which asserts that autonomy fosters intrinsic motivation, thereby enhancing engagement and learning. Based on these results, it is recommended that coaches and sports psychologists incorporate self-control goal-setting strategies into training regimens to optimize both performance and motivation.
 Article Message
This study emphasizes that to enhance learning and improve athletic performance, integrating self-control goal-setting approaches alongside physical training is beneficial. Moreover, self-control strategies not only boost performance but also elevate motivation more effectively than other goal-setting modalities.
Ethical Considerations
This study was approved by the University of Tabriz Ethics Committee (Code: IR.TABRIZU.REC.1402.001).
Authors’ Contributions
All authors contributed equally across all stages of the research.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge all individuals who supported this research.